Phase Two Part II

1. Explain a classical conditioning using a scenario that YOU have created. DO NOT use one the book lists. Try to explain this type of conditioning using something that is relevant to your life: school, home, or work could all be areas you can pull from.  (Molly)
          Classical conditioning can be explained in my family. My mom is very down to earth and encouraging. She wears a certain perfume. Overtime, I have associated that perfume smell with a comforting and welcoming feeling. I feel at home whenever I smell that perfume. The warm feeling when I am in the presence of my mom is the UCR. The UCS is the presence of my mom. The CS would is the perfume smell. The comforting feeling I get from the smell of her perfume is the CR.
2. Explain operant conditioning using a scenario that YOU have created. DO NOT use one the book lists. Try to explain this type of conditioning using something that is relevant to your life: school, home, or work could all be areas you can pull from. (Molly)
           A personal scenario that is an example of operant conditioning for punishment is when my parents make me and my siblings sit on the steps. If we talk back, we have to sit on the steeps for a certain amount of time. By sitting on the steps, something we do not want to do, we are punished and try to not give attitude to our parents anymore. Another example of operant conditioning, but used for reinforcement, is when my parents gave candy when we were being potty trained. When I and my sisters were learning how to go to the bathroom, my mom would give us M&M’S. This reinforced that using the bathroom was a good thing and we should keep doing it. For this reason, when we were younger, we associated the bathroom with M&M’S.
3. Compare Classical and Operant Conditioning. How are they the same? How are they different? (Molly)
          Classical conditioning is when someone learns by association. It is involuntary and automatic. There is a particular relationship between two things. Basically, classical conditioning pairs two things together, and when one occurs, then this means the other thing will occur also. Subjects expect that the conditioned stimulus signals the arrival of the conditioned response. Operant conditioning involves more reinforcement. When someone does a particular action, they can be positively reinforced, which normally causes him/her do it again, or negatively reinforced, which punishes him/her and causes him/her to not to it anymore. Operant conditional is operated by the environment. There is an association of the response with the consequences. Classical and Operant conditioning are similar because they both are revolved around learning techniques. They are two ways people/animals discover things mainly by cause and effect.
4. Do you think either plays a role in how you respond to teachers and your academic role here at Wilson? Explain. (everyone)
          Yes, operant conditioning definitely plays a role here at Wilson. For example, this school district negatively reinforces cell phone use, disrespect, and violation of the rules by punishing the students in detention, suspension, or a call home to their parents. We are also positively reinforced with things like the PSSAs. If we receive a good score on this test, then we are granted with a parking spot or prom tickets. (Molly)

Yes, I feel that both Classical and Operant Conditioning play a role in how you respond to teachers and your academic role here at Wilson. Classical conditioning is used by many of the teachers in Wilson. If a teacher has a certain way of setting up tests, for example an essay the first day and multiple choice the next day, students adapt to these circumstances and know that after every essay test, there is a multiple choice test. Additionally, I think teachers use operant conditioning during their class. If a student is praised (positively reinforced) for an excellent grade, the student is more likely to do well in his/her class. Many students’ grades are affected by the way teachers react to how well they do in school. (Nina)

I believe that Operant Conditioning plays a huge role in how students respond to a teacher.  This is saying that students associate their behavior with their consequences.  They will essentially repeat rewarded behaviors and not punished ones.  The way the teacher prevents himself/herself is important because if he/she demands respect and sets that tone from the beginning of the year, he/she will get it.  If the teacher appears to be vulnerable, it seems that students try to take advantage of the teacher.  For example, when I was in ninth grade, we had a sub because our teacher when to China to adopt a child.  The teacher was very young and instead of setting the rules from the beginning she almost tried to be more like a friend and was very shy and hesitant with punishment.  Some of the students in my class were very disrespectful and rude to her.  They refused to listen and do what she asked.  I believe if our sub would have come into our class and set the tone demanding respect she would have gotten it.  (Chrissy)

I think that both operant and classical conditioning play a role here at Wilson. For operant conditioning, reinforcers are given, for example, studying hard makes for a student to get good grades. Also, giving detentions keeps students from repeating bad, unwanted behaviors. For classical conditioning, bells ring at the end of each class so the students associate the bell to leaving one class and heading for another. (Laura)

5. How can understanding classical and operant conditioning help us to understand the way we learn? Provide at least two examples to illustrate your point. (Molly)
          Classical and operant conditioning can help us understand how we learn by discovering the mental processes that we possess when there is a result to a stimuli. It can help us comprehend why we react the way we do to certain situations or why we do things more often opposed to doing some things less frequently. For example, if an individual receives money from his/her parents every time he/she scores a goal for a sport, he/she is being positively reinforced and will most likely score more often (extrinsic motivation). If we know who performs the best when being bribed, we can probably utilize this knowledge to make them succeed. If we understand that the best way for some individuals is by associating two things like in classical conditioning, we can use this to create an effective way to advertise. For example, if a commercial shows a product and targets it to relate to their emotions and feelings of a person’s past, then the product would probably sell better, especially if the product brings good memories back.
6. In your normal day here at school, explain a time where you have seen the use of positive reinforcement and one of negative reinforcement. For each one, analyze the impact that it had on you or the class you were in. (Nina)
           During school, I see both positive and negative reinforcements. A positive reinforcement occurred when a student received an A on a test and was praised for his work ethic. The teacher smiled at him as she returned the test. The A on the test and the smile from the teacher are positive reinforcers. I could tell that the boy was impressed with his work and was excited for receiving this grade. It impacted the class because this boy became more involved with the class activities. This improvement and positive reinforcement from the teacher encourages the boy to continue to work harder to receive high grades. A negative reinforcement occurred in school when a student studied for an exam to avoid getting a poor grade. The low grade is the negative reinforcer for studying. The student learned that he had to study in order to avoid receiving a poor grade; in turn, he learned more about the subject and was able to participate in class and do well on further test.
7. How do punishments impact your learning here in school? Consider what you know about punishment systems from the learning chapter to help guide your response. (Nina)      Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement; punishment decreases a behavior.  A major punishment in our school system is that failing can get you held back. Being held back advocates a student to do well the next year so he or she passes and is able to graduate. Another major punishment in our school system deals with cheating and plagiarism. If a student is caught cheating and plagiarizing, he or she will receive academic consequences and may be subject to the school discipline code. These punishments encourage students to do their own work; these consequences positively influence a student to work harder and perform to his or her abilities.
   Also, another major punishment involves cellphones. If a student is caught using a cellphone in school, he or she receives detention and, at times, have to pay money to get his or her phone back. These consequences enforce that students should not be using their cellphones during school and, instead, paying attention to their schoolwork.  Punishments effectively impact our school.
8. We talked about the impact of grades during Unit 2. Do you think they fall into this unit at all? Why or why not? (Nina)
             In Unit 2, we talked about how grades impact students; we decided that students want and need to do well to succeed. This idea is affected by the environment and society. This idea about grades definitely falls into this unit. Grades have both positive and negative reinforcements on students’ lives. Grades are believed to determine success. Therefore, these reinforcements are the reasons why students are succeeding; they are striving to do well in school and receive good grades. Also, I think the environment encourages this success and creates these reinforcements. Additionally, society guides students into being successful. Society creates undesirable punishments in order to decrease the frequency of a preceding behavior. Negative actions, such as cheating, have consequences. These consequences are created in order for students to be focused and led in the right direction (towards success). Society influences students to succeed. The impact of grades during Unit 2 falls into this unit.
9. Your textbook has a very positive bias when explaining the implications of Skinner’s research on operant conditioning. Do you agree or disagree with this bias? Explain by providing at least two examples that illustrate your point. (Nina)
            I disagree with the textbook’s positive bias when explaining the implications of Skinner’s research on operant conditioning. Skinner believed that external influences, not internal thoughts and feelings, shape behavior and by urging the use of operant principles to influence people’s behavior at school, work, and home. I believe that both internal and external influences shape behavior. Reinforcement with jobs well done is very effective in boosting productivity when the performance is desired. The external influence of money plays a role in the productivity, but so does the desire to do the job effectively for self-satisfaction and personal success. Additionally, when a person makes personal decisions, that person considers both external and internal influences. He or she considers their individual morals and beliefs, but also the external beliefs of his or her society. Both strongly effect a person’s decision with school, work, and at home. I disagree with the textbook’s positive bias when explaining the implications of Skinner’s research on operant conditioning because I believe that both internal and external influences shape behavior.
10. Let’s not forget learning my observation: Think of something that you do that might be influenced by what you have observed and explain it and how it applies to both the psychological aspect of our study and also the biological. (Chrissy)

          Over the years, I have watched my parents use coupons as well as talk about specific goals that they have set over the years.  I have begun to mimic their behavior and save money.  It has taught my siblings and me to be frugal with our money causing us to not be very big spenders.  We do not eat out very much and we do not shop often, but when we do we use coupons and look for sales.  If my parents would always be using credit cards and bringing home shopping bags it would have probably given me the impression that our money was limitless.  This behavior plays into the psychological aspect because it teaches us to plan our spending and to use what we have.  This behavior is really easy for us to mimic because of mirror neurons which are in the frontal lobe adjacent to the brain’s motor cortex.  They provide a neural basis for observational learning.

1. Consider the first two units that we discussed this year: the history of psychology and applying science to Psychology, how do they fit into our midterm project?  Provide at least three examples to illustrate your point. (Chrissy)
             The history of psychology and the science of psychology both play a role in our midterm project.  The different theories, learning strategies, and the evolution in psychology all impact our project.  For example, we are using a survey to see which learning method is most prevalent so that we can reach out to the most students.  This survey will tell us whether we need to have a more hands on discussion or if we should lecture with the students taking notes.  In addition, studying empiricism has helped because it is the view that knowledge comes from experience like through the senses.  This deals with observational learning and learning through experiments.  This will help us to make sure we are enforcing the terms and major points that are important through different methods.  We have come up with different ideas to help cover different learning types.  For example, we will display our project through games, posters, worksheets, and possibly a scrapbook.  These different ideas will help learn these units.  Finally, we will also try to implement the use of critical thinking so that the students will examine assumptions, evaluate evidence, and asses to their own conclusions on different topics. 
2.  How can you use what you know about the history of psychology and the science behind psychology to create your learning strategy?  Provide two paths you can take to incorporate knowledge into your final product. (Chrissy)
             Through the study of the history of psychology, theories have developed and evolved influencing our learning strategy.  For example, we could try to teach using empiricism or structuralism.  Empiricism deals with the fact the knowledge comes from experience and learn through observation where as structuralism is a more self reflective introspection meaning looking inward.  Structuralism has varies more depending on the person it deals with.  We are using empiricism because we believe that observational learning is very effective.  It will also help that they will be acquiring the knowledge through their different senses which will only help bind the knowledge into the brains.
3. You know some of the ways we learn—but what types of learners are there in our classroom (use your survey data to complete this question)?  What ideas do you have for incorporating those learners into your learning strategy? (Chrissy)            By using our survey, we decided to use some posters, games like memory, and a scrapbook to try to incorporate the learners into our strategy.  These methods will reach beyond just one learning type helping the majority of the students in the class.  These methods will also help them learn the information more by repetition of key points.  In addition, this will make them think critically about some of the points that we make.
4. How can we utilize psychology to help create learning strategies for all our learners? (Laura)       Psychology helps to provide insight to different people. When a teacher really understands and observes his/her student, he/she knows how that student learns the best. Knowing this could help to create a learning strategies for learners that suit the way they remember information.
5. How does biology play a role in how we develop learning strategies for learners? (Laura)
          Biology plays a huge role in learning. Biological predisposition allows or disallows organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. It is easier and natural for a learner to learn something that is biologically fit for them; for example, as stated in part I, when mice are put on a bar, they use their front arms to elicit a response off of a bar that moves because it is natural for them to run or pick up food with their front arms. It easier to develop learning strategies for learners when their biological predispositions are known.

Summarize what you have learned or will learn throughout Phase I and II and begin thinking about creating your learning strategy….

What is the most effective way to teach every learner neuroscience without falling back on rote memorization? (This one you will want to add on to as we move into chapters 9 and 10) (Laura)       An easy, yet effective way to teach learners neuroscience without memorization would be repetition. When learning something new, many learners tend to memorize what they are learning. However, if a teacher repeatedly does activities involving neuroscience each day, it starts to become engrained in the learner’s mind. Example activities could be to play “memory games” with cards and pictures that a student must match together, videos and lectures that pertain to neuroscience, or discussions with peers to increase the knowledge of neuroscience. There are many different learning/teaching strategies that could be used to learn neuroscience; however, it is important to keep repeating different activities on neuroscience to keep the information processing in the brain. (Laura)

Phase Two Part I

Learning-a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.(Molly)

Associative learning-learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning). (Molly)

Conditional (classical)-a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also can be called Pavlovian Conditioning. (Molly)

Operant Conditioning-a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher. (Molly)

Behaviorism-the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists agree with 1, not 2. (Molly)

Observational learning- learning by observing others. (Molly)

Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment-started doing experiments involving learning when he noticed invariably salivation caused by food in dogs. At first Pavlov tried to imagine what the dog was thinking and feeling. Then, he paired neutral stimuli with food to see the dog’s reaction the next times he uses the same neutral stimuli. He eliminated other possible neutral stimuli by isolating the dog in a room. Pavlov hoped to see if the dog would associate the neutral stimuli with food and therefore, salivate. (Molly)

Findings of Pavlov’s experiment-Pavlov found that the dog did associate food (and salivation) to neutral stimuli (like a voice, buzzer, a touch, a light or a smell). Since the salivation in response to the food in the mouth was unlearned, it was called unconditioned response. The food stimulus was called the unconditioned stimulus. After the experiment, when the dog would associate the stimuli and salivation together, which means he learned. This is called conditioned response and conditioned stimulus. (Molly)

Acquisition-the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Provide an example of classical conditioning NOT found in your book-my mom is understanding, so when I smell her perfume I feel at home and comfortable. (Molly)

Extinction-the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (Molly)

Spontaneous Recovery-the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization (in context of learning)-the tendency, one a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination-in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Importance of Cognitive Processes in Classical Conditioning-Animals learn when to “expect” an unconditioned stimulus. The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response. It’s as if the animal learns an expectancy, an awareness of how likely it is that the UCS will occur. Conditioning occurs best when the CS and UCS have just the sort of relationship that would lead a scientist to conclude that the CS causes the UCS. This principle helps explain why conditioning treatments that ignore cognition often have limited success.

Importance of Biology in Classical Conditioning-An animal’s capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology. The biological predispositions of each species dispose it to learn the particular associations that enhance its survival. Environments are not the whole story.

Taste Aversion (Research of John Garcia)-if sickened as late as several hours after tasting a particular novel flavor, the flavor is avoid in the future. Aversions are developed to the tastes, but not the sights or sounds.

An example of taste aversion not described in your book-My friend ate white cheddar popcorn and hours later, she was sick from it. She no longer eats white cheddar popcorn.

Watson, Rayner and research after Pavolv-Pavolv’s work provided a basis for John Watson’s idea that human emotions and behavior, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. Watson and Rayner showed how specific fears might be conditioned. Their subject was an 11-month old infant names Albert. “Little Albert” feared loud noises but not white rats. Watson and Rayner presented him with a white rat and, as he reached to touch it, stuck a hammer against a steel bar just behind his head. After seven repetitions of seeing the rat and hearing the frightening noise, Albert burst into tears at he mere sight of the rat. Five days later, Albert showed generalization of his condition response by reacting with fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat, but not dissimilar objects such as toys.
(the following review to operant conditioning)

Respondent behavior-behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behavior-behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Law of effects-Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Skinner Box (operant chamber)-a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking; used in operant conditioning research.

Shaping-an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal.

Successive approximations-one rewards responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior and ignore all other responses. It is a way to shape complex behaviors. Example: after we got our electric fence for my dog, she refused to cross the line even when the collar was off and she was on a leash. She would sit down and not budge. We used treats to make her come closer and closer until she finally crossed the line. Each time she took a step closer we gave her a treat to try to reinforce that she was okay to cross. (Chrissy)

Discriminative stimulus-psychologists try to shape nonverbal organisms to discriminate between stimuli as well as try to determine what they perceive like dogs can distinguish color? Experiments are used to see if we can shape them to respond to one stimulus and not another then they can perceive the difference. (Chrissy)

Reinforcement-any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response. (Chrissy)

Positive reinforcement- a tangible reward, praise for attention, or a reward. Example: a child was in speech class for eight years because he had trouble saying the “r” sound. He could not say words like “girl” or “car”. Throughout the classes, the teacher used positive reinforcement when the boy would pronounce the word correctly. Each time he did it right, he received a piece of candy to try to instill this behavior in the child. (Chrissy)

Negative reinforcement-this strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus. Example: a student does not pay attention during class and does not prepare for a test in his chemistry class. He receives a bad grade on the next test. After seeing the result of this test, the student changes his behavior in class by taking notes, asking questions, and studying for the test. Due to his bad test grade on the last one, he changes his behavior to help reduce his stress and anxiety. Example: my dad used to never wear his seat belt, but since he got a new car there is a constant beeping noise if he doesn’t put his seat belt on. He now wears his seat belt in order to turn off the annoying beeping sound. (Chrissy)

Primary reinforcers-an innately reinforcing stimulus like one that satisfies a biological need. Example- someone gets a glass of water to relieve their thirst. (Chrissy)

Conditioned reinforcer-a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. It is also known as the “secondary reinforcer”. Example: if a light signifies food is coming for a rat. The rat will work to turn on the light in order to try to get food. The light is a secondary reinforcer with food. (Chrissy)

Immediate reinforcer-if a child is whining to their parents because they want a cookie and the parent gives them a cookie right away to try to stop the child’s whining, then the child will begin to associate their whining to getting what they want. This will cause them to exhibit their behavior more frequently in order to get it. An immediate reinforcer means that they show a specific behavior they will immediately get that reinforcement like food for a rat or a cookie for a child who is whining. (Chrissy)

Delayed reinforcer- if the parent woujld delay the reinforcement by giving the child the reward later, it would keep them from making the connection of cause and effect. By waiting other behaviors will intervene and be reinforced to keep from the connection between cause and effect. Example: if I whine I will get what I want.

Reinforcement Schedules:
Variable-interval schedule- reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Produces a slow, steadying response.
Fixed-interval schedule- reinforce first response after a fixed time period. Causes a choppy stop and start pattern rather than a steady rate of response.
Variable-ratio schedules- provides reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses like gamblers. Produces high rates of responding because the reinforcers increase as the number of responses increase.
Fixed-ratio schedules- reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. This reduces awards.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement- responses are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. The initial learning is slower compared to continuous but partial reinforcement has greater persistence and resistance to extinction.
Continuous reinforcement- the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs. Learning occurs more rapidly but once the reinforcement stops, the skill is forgotten quickly. (Chrissy)

Punishment-opposite of reinforcement; tries to increase a behavior while punishment decreases it. A punisher is any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior, usually by giving an undesirable consequence or taking away something desirable one. Example: if a young child yells back at a parent or is rude or disrespectful, they might take away dessert to try to have the child realize not to repeat this action. (Chrissy)

Cognitive map- a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. They have learned the maze and will demonstrate their knowledge regardless if there is a reinforcer of not because they have made this “map” to remember their way.(Chrissy)

Latent Learning- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it (Laura)

Intrinsic Motivation vs. Extrinsic Motivation-intrinsic motivation is a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective and extrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment (Laura)

How does cognition affect operant learning?  Cognition is all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communication and operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Cognition impacts operant learning because cognition helps you to remember the reinforcer or diminisher.  (Laura)

How does biology play a role in operant learning? Animals and humans can most easily learn and retain behaviors that draw on their biological predispositions. For example, cats have inborn tendencies to leap high and land on their feet. (Laura)

Research after Skinner: Skinner repeatedly insisted that external influences not internal thoughts and feelings shaped behavior and by urging the use of operant principles to influence people’s behavior at school, work, and home. He said recognizing that behavior is shaped by its consequences, we should promote more desirable behavior.  (Laura)

Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior (Laura)

Mirror Neurons: Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so, the brain’s mirroring of another action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. (For example, when one person yawns, it causes others to yawn). (Laura)

Albert Bandura: Bandura conducted a controversial experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment, to study patterns of behavior associated with aggression. He learned that similar behaviors were learned by individuals modeling their own behavior after the actions of others. He believes part of whether we imitate a model is due to reinforcements and punishments. (Laura)

Prosocial Models: People who exemplify non-violent, helpful behavior can prompt similar behavior in others. (For example, Martin Luther King, Jr. set a prosocial example by using non-violence). (Laura)

The Impact of Television: The more hours children spend watching violent programs, the more at risk they are at for aggression and crime as teens and adults. (Laura)

The Good News about TV: Correlation does not imply causation. Therefore, correlation studies do not prove that viewing violence causes aggression. Maybe aggressive children prefer violent programs.  (Laura)

Desensitizing Youth: Prolonged exposure to violence desensitizes viewers. They become more indifferent to it when later viewing a brawl, whether on television or in real life. (Laura)

Provide one example of Observational Learning from your lifetime (4)-
An example of observation learning from my life is when my mom used to do my hair when I was younger. I would watch how she would pull my hair up and put a hair tie in it to keep it up. By watching (observing) how my mom did my hair, I was able to learn how to do my hair on my own. (Nina)

After my younger cousin was born when I was 7, I watched how my aunt held, fed, and comforted the baby boy. I watched every move like how she rocked him and held the bottle. When I went home, I brought out my baby doll that I always played with and imitated my aunt’s actions. I pretended to rock my baby to sleep, comfort her when she “cried”, feed her when she was hungry, and sing her a lullaby to help her fall asleep. I watched my aunt take care of my younger cousin and repeated her actions on my only baby doll. (Chrissy)

When I was younger, my mom always used to make cookies, and I would watch her every time. Every holiday, I was surrounded by my older sister and mom making cookies. By watching them make cookies, it encouraged me to want to make them; I learned how to make cookies by watching them. (Molly)

In order to encourage me to read, my parents read to me, and surrounded me with books and people that read a lot.  (Laura)

Phase One

Neural communication-The body’s circuitry, the nervous system, consist of billions of individual cells called neuron. A neuron receives signals from other neurons through its branching dendrites and cell body, combines these signals in the cell body, and transmits an electrical impulse (the action potential) down its axon. When these signals reach the end of the axon, they stimulate the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. These molecules pass on their excitatory in inhibitory messages as they traverse the synaptic gap between neurons and combine with receptor sites on neighboring neurons. (Nina)

The impact of neurotransmitters- They influence our motions and our emotions; particular neurotransmitters may have particular effects on behavior and emotions. (Nina)

Impact of drugs/chemicals on n. communication- Some drugs (agonists) excite by mimicking particular neurotransmitters or blocking their reuptake; others (antagonists) inhibit by blocking neurotransmitters. (Nina)

Nervous system-the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system. The nervous system functions as a way for information to travel and consists of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It allows information to travel quickly to different parts of the body. (Laura)

Peripheral nervous system-the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. It is made up of two components-somatic (controls the movements of our skeletal muscles) and autonomic (controls the glands and the muscles of our internal glands). (Laura)

Central nervous system-is the spinal cord that connects the peripheral nervous system to the brain. The neural pathways that govern our reflexes is the work of the spinal cord. Another pathway enables the pain reflex. The other part of the central is the brain receiving information, interpreting it, and deciding responses. (Laura)

Endocrine system-The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (Nina)

Limbic system- A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. It includes hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. (Nina)

Methods of researching the brain-There are four methods to research the brain: clinical observations, manipulating the brain, recording the brain’s electrical activity, and neuroimaging techniques. Clinical observation is the oldest way of studying brain-mind connections and observes the effects of brain diseases and injuries; gradually, through this process, the brain was being mapped and now provides clues to our own brains’ inner workings. Manipulating the brain is a faster, newer way that can electrically, chemically, or magnetically stimulate various parts of the brain and note the effects. Recording the brain’s electrical activity gives off electrical, metabolic, and magnetic signals that would enable neuroscientists to eavesdrop on the brain. Neuroimaging techniques provide a way to see inside the rain without lesioning it. For example computed tomography scans (x-ray photographs that reveal brain damage), positron emission tomography scans (depicts brain activity by showing each brain area’s consumption of its chemical fuel), magnetic resonance imaging (detailed picture of the br-ain’s soft tissues). This method allows researchers to have instant access to reveal activity in a particular brain area.  (Laura)

Parts of the brain-The brain is divided into four regions, or lobes. The frontal lobes are located in the front of the brain and are involved in speaking and muscle movements in making plans and judgments. The parietal lobes are near the top and a little to the back of the brain and includes the sensory cortex. The occipital lobes are at the back of the brain and are involved in the visual perceptions. Finally, the temporal lobes are right above the ears and include auditory areas. (Molly)

Plasticity-The brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development. (Nina)

The divided brain (functions of each side)-information from the left half of an individual’s field of vision goes to his/her right hemisphere and information from the right half of one’s visual field goes to his/her left hemisphere. The right side of the brain is responsible for visual perception perceiving differences, emotions, and recognizing faces). The left side is more responsible for speech and language. (Molly)

Nature vs. Nurture-controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. (Nina)

Genes/data-The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein. (Nina)

Evolutionary psychology-The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of Natural Selection. (Nina)

Natural selection-The principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed to succeeding generations. (Nina)

Sexuality/gender-Men have a stronger sex drive than women. Going along with the traditional masculine attitude, most men are more comfortable with casual sex. This can be explained partially because men are higher risk takers than women. Men most likely find youthful looking women more attractive. Women find healthy, mature, dominant, and bold men more attractive. Women also like men who are in it for the long run. (Molly)

Behavior genetics-The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. (Nina)

Twins (importance of studies)-The studying of twins is very important because it identifies the heritability of several traits and even disorders. By studying twins, geneticists can determine their individual differences. They are able to weigh genetic and environmental contributions to their personalities. By discovering that twins normally share similar personalities, they can be experimented in different environments to see how they react and develop. Twins are important for studies because they are basically clones of each other. They can help test the importance of nature and nurture. (Molly)

Adoption Studies- Many studies have been conducted on adoption to see the effects of parenting on the child. With adoption, two groups are created, the biological parents and siblings and the adoptive parents and siblings. The main question that is studied is, is the child more like the adopted parents who control the environment or more like their biological parents who they share the same traits? It has been found that regardless if they are biologically related or not do not resemble each other in their personality. The environmental factors nothing to do with the personality of the child. Even biological siblings are very different with regard to personality. Although environment does not affect their personality, it plays a huge role in their child’s attitude, values, manners, faith, and politics. Even though there is a greater risk of psychological disorder, children thrive with the adoptive parents as well as have a huge connection with them. The example that the adoptive parents set for their children will often be carried forward with the child. For example, if the parents are self-giving, more than likely the adopted child will also be self-giving. (Chrissy)

Temperament/Heritability- Temperament: a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. Heritability: the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; may vary on the range of populations and environments studied. (Nina)

Genes and the environment- Genes and experience are both very important, but their effects are interconnected. There is no way of saying one affects this much and the other effects the rest. They work together to determine different reactions from people. The environment in which a child is brought up in can affect how they respond and others respond to different situations. For example, if a child is catered to and spoiled at home, they might come across problems with someone like a teacher. If the child is disrespectful or acts as he would at home, the teacher might reprimand the child because he disagrees with the child’s behavior; but, the teacher could also be very welcoming and nice to another child who is very respectful and studious. The teacher will have a different response to the child than the parents do because traits stir up different responses. Scarr states, “Children experience us as different parents, depending on their own qualities.” With age, people choose the environments in which they surround themselves around. Genes affect others reactions to and influences on us; therefore, it is no longer nature vs. nurture, but nurture vs. nature. (Chrissy)

Molecular genetics-The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. (Nina)

Parenting influence/interference- Parents have a huge impact on children. First, all the genes inherited by the child from the parents play a major role in bother their outer and inner appearance. Parents not only influence the child’s genes, but also many of their beliefs. Parents have a huge impact on religion, traditions, views on different subjects, and behavior. For example, my family believes thoroughly in philanthropy, or giving back to the community, and it has been drilled in our brains that we should do this; therefore, it is not just a nice deed we do once, it is a habit. In addition, we believe family comes first and is very important to us. Every Sunday we go to my grandparent’s house to have dinner with my mother’s side of the family. This has become a tradition and has affected my values, my attitude, and my manners. Parents may not have control over the personality of their child, but they do have the ability to influence it. (Chrissy)

Peer influence (group influence)- Our peers influence us every day. Peers are chosen through “selective effect” which means that children look for peers with similar attitudes and interests. Peers influence each other just as much if not more as family does. For example, teens usually start things like smoking because their friends express the benefits, the feelings, and offer cigarettes. Parental influences are less important than peer. People choose who to play with, work with, and mate with. It is important to surround oneself with people who care about them. Parenting and peers are complimentary. Peers help shape the lives of teens through the different experiences that occur. Peers help teach working together and cooperation. Peer pressure occurs everywhere, including Wilson. It is human nature to conform to group of people in fear of what will happen if one speaks out against the common belief. (Chrissy)   

Culture-The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (Nina)

Variations over time- Human variations across cultures and overtime show who differing norms or expectations guide behavior. Cultures differ in their norms for personal space, expressiveness, and pace of life. (Nina)

The nature and nurture of gender- Although males and females share similarly adaptive bodily procedures, differing sex chromosomes and differing concentrations of sex hormones lead to significant physiological sex differences. Yet, gender differences vary widely depending upon cultural socialization through social learning and gender schemes.  (Nina)

How does neuroscience help or hinder the credibility of psychology as a science? (Nina)

                Neuroscience helps the credibility of psychology as a science. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of biology, and ultimately, everything psychological is simultaneously biological. Science is generally defined as knowledge gained through study or practice, using observation and experimentation that describes and explains natural phenomena. Neuroscientists study the molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system. Through studying these different aspects, neuroscientists are able explain why and how we think, feel, and act. For example, studying the hypothalamus allows us to understand why we shiver and sweat. Scientists discovered that the hypothalamus tries to maintain the expected body temperature of 98.6° Fahrenheit.  Therefore, through its study, neuroscience is able to help the credibility of psychology as a science.

How do the brain and body work together to explain how humans think, feel, and act? (Nina)

The brain is the boss of the body. It controls just about everything a person does, even when asleep. The brain has many different parts that work together: cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, pituitary gland, and hypothalamus. The biggest part of the brain is the cerebrum. The cerebrum is the thinking part of the brain, and it controls voluntary muscles. Also, thinking hard uses the cerebrum. The cerebrum has two halves; some scientists think that the right half thinks about abstract things like music, colors, and shapes. The left half is thinks about math, logic, and speech. Also, the right half of the cerebrum controls the left side of your body, and the left half controls the right side. Additionally, the cerebellum is at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum. It controls balance, movement, and coordination. The cerebellum allows a person to stand upright, keep balance, and move around. -Another important part of the brain is the brain stem. The brain stem is in charge of all the functions the body needs to stay alive, such as breathing, digesting food, and circulating blood. Part of the brain stem's job is to control involuntary muscles. There are involuntary muscles in the heart and stomach, and it's the brain stem that tells the heart to pump more blood when needed. Furthermore, the pituitary gland produces and releases hormones into the body. The pituitary gland releases hormones, plays a role in puberty, and keeps metabolism going. Finally, the hypothalamus is like the brain's inner thermostat. The hypothalamus knows what temperature the body should be (about 98.6° Fahrenheit). If the body is too hot, the hypothalamus tells it to sweat. If the body is too cold, the hypothalamus tells the body to shiver. These five main parts of the brain show how the brain and the body work together to create how a human thinks, feels, and acts.

What is the difference between cognitive and psychology and neuroscience? (Molly)                                                 
              Neuroscience deals with more in depth studies of biology. This science analyzes how the brain and body work together. For example, when an individual gets hurt, these scientists evaluate how the brain knows something is wrong and feels pain. Cognitive psychology is the study of what actually goes on in the brain. For example, how the brain encodes and learns things. Cognitive psychology has nothing to do with the body and how it interacts with the brain. It is strictly the study of the brain and its functions.

How do gender roles play a role in how we study human beings and how they think? (Molly)                  

              Gender roles are our expectations about the way men and women behave. They play a role in how we study humans by developing theories. For example, the gender schema theory is when an individual combines the environmental influence with his/her own cognitive thinking of what is right and wrong, whereas the social learning theory only considers the impact of the environments’ gender norms. With both of these theories, we can develop an idea of how boys and girls mature into their gender functions.                                                                             

How does culture play a role in how people behave? (Molly)

              Culture can be defined as the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors a population shares. Cultures expect people to have certain responsibilities and perform specific actions. For example, women in some cultures are expected to stay home and watch the children or do household work, while other cultures view women as equal to men, which means they share freedom and independence. Cultures set what they believe the norm should be. These norms are passed down from generation to generation. The norms include everything that is acceptable behavior in a certain group of people. For example, a culture influences what appropriate gestures, personal space, and compliments are in a population. Certain foods and jobs also differ between cultures. Altogether, culture is basically the environment of a population. People imitate how their own culture functions

How do studies of twins help us to understand the genetics behind psychology? (Molly)     

              Twins can help us understand genetics behind psychology because most of the time they are raised in the same environment. In this case, since the twins are exposed to similar situations, punishments, and social environments, the difference in how they react (or how their genetics influence their actions) can be taken note of. In studies where the twins are not raised in the same household and environment, we can determine the similarities that identical twins have in common. It was discovered that identical twins, even separated at birth, normally grow up to become very similar people. Genetics influence an individual’s personality, likes, dislikes, and reactions. Since their genetics are identical, it can be concluded that both nature and nurture plays a role in an individual’s development. Biological and social factors each are responsible for determining the outcome of a person.

Explain how evolution plays a role in Psychology: (Laura)                                                       
              Evolutionary psychology is how the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one’s genes. It explains psychological traits, such as memory, perception, or language, as adaptations, or the functional products of natural selection. For example, humans have inherited special mental capacities for acquiring language.

How does technology play a role in helping us to understand the brain and its functions better? (Laura)            

              For hundreds of years, the brain was way too small to study with the naked eye; scientists were able to feel bumps on the skull and examine lifeless brains. There were no high-powered, gentle tools to observe the living brain. Now, scientists can selectively lesion tiny clusters of normal or defective brains cells, while leaving surrounding areas unharmed. Scientists can investigate the brain with tiny electrical pulses, watch the messages of individual neurons and billions of neuron, and see color representations of the brain’s energy-consuming activity. Along with a lesion, other tools scientists use to study the brain include an electroencephalogram (records the waves of electrical activity across the brain’s surface), a computed tomography scan (a series of x-rays taken from several angles that combines to make a composite representation of a slice through the body), a positron emission tomography scan (a visual display of brain activity that shows where a radioactive for of glucose goes while the brain performs tasks) , and magnetic resonance imaging (uses magnetic fields and radio waves and shows structures within the brain).

Do you believe that natural selection is a plausible theory when it comes to how humans have developed over time? (Laura)

              Charles Darwin set sail on a journey around the world. After this journey, he wondered why tortoises on one land differed from those on another land. He explained the diversity by proposing the idea of natural selection. This means that Darwin believed nature selects those that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment. Natural selection is a plausible theory to how humans have developed over time because it explains why humans act and think differently in different places of the world.

Consider the term “Social Darwinism” used often during the imperial age of American history. Do you believe that the term has credibility when it comes to Psychology? (Laura)

              “Social Darwinism” is the theory of the survival of the fittest. It says that there are natural forces acting on societies in which the best-adapted and most successful groups survive. This term has credibility when it comes to Psychology because Psychology is the study of the human mind and behaviors. How humans survive through this “Social Darwinism” theory is through their behaviors and actions. For example, those individuals who are better able to find and use a food resource will, on average, live longer and produce more offspring than those who are less successful at finding food.

Culture plays a huge role in how human beings behave but it also plays a role in how we perceive others. How does the culture we were brought up in influence the way that we perceive others around the world? (Chrissy)

              Culture is shared ideas and behaviors that one generation passes on to the next. It influences many things such as our standards on promptness and frankness, our attitudes toward premarital sex and varying body shapes, our tendencies to be casual or formal, etc. For example, in the Spanish culture their attitude toward promptness is very different from other places. It is appropriate for them to arrive late to any social gathering, but they are expected to be on time for work, school, or sporting events. This would frustrate a Japanese person because their culture is very prompt. Awareness of these differences in cultures can help relieve conflict. Our biological heritage keeps us united as a universal human family. Each culture has different norms (the rules for accepted and expected behavior) like Muslims only use their right hand’s fingers to eat or British will orderly wait in a line. Another norm deals with greetings in different culture. It is often that cultures will clash due to the different norms. For example, personal space can make some feel uncomfortable depending on the culture. In addition, people with roots to northern European culture will perceive Mediterranean people as warm and charming, but very inefficient; people who have Mediterranean culture will perceive northern Europeans as efficient, but cold and preoccupied with punctuality. Different culture norms can cause people to become frustrated because of the differences. Perceptions can be blurred by these differences which is why awareness can help relieve frustrations.

Based on what you know about psychology and biology, do you believe that men and women can be perfectly equal in our society? Explain your response. (Chrissy)

              Gender issues are common in psychology. They are obvious in what we dream and in how we express and detect emotions. Also, we show differences in our risk for alcoholism, depression, and eating disorders. For example, women carry conversations to build relationships and men talk to give information or take advice. Awareness of the differences can help avoid conflicts. Although there are many differences, women and men are also very similar. Men and women experience the same sensations of light and sound, we feel hunger and desire and we show similar intelligence and well-being. Our culture further effects gender. In addition, women seem to have a more intense and more frequent experience of joy and love. They also experienced more embarrassment, guilt, shame, sadness, anger, fear, and distress. Men seemed to experience pride more frequently and intensely than women. Although men and women do share many similarities, they will never be perfectly equal in our society. Women can hold male positions, but if women act aggressive or tough like a man, they are often perceived as rude just because they are women and are supposed to be more sensitive. The gap between men and women has gotten significantly smaller, but there are just certain customs that will keep the two from being perfectly equal. For example, in an agricultural society, women remain close to home working in the fields and teaching the children while the men do all the fencing and building. Due to the gender roles that have developed over time, men and women will never be completely equal tending to limit women’s rights and power. Over the generations, the gap between the men and women will continue to close, but perfection will not be completely reached.

Consider Wilson High School’s social environment. How often does peer pressure play a role in the decisions that students make here? Provide an example to prove your point. (Chrissy)

              Peer pressure affects Wilson High School every day in the class rooms, hall ways, and extracurricular activities. Students will often conform or agree with what the majority says or does. In addition, the seniority card is often pulled against the under classman. For example, if there is only a few spots left on the library pass and it is between a senior and a sophomore, the senior will pressure the sophomore to giving up their spot. Another example is the other week a senior student wanted to skip study hall ninth period, but did not want to do it alone. She then asked a sophomore who had a major subject ninth period to skip with her. She persistently asked until the sophomore agreed. This is just one example of peer pressure regarding seniority. Even when voting for something in the class room, a student will often not speak out in fear of being ridiculed by the others or if a student does speak out they will often conform to the rest of the group instead of keeping their initial stance. Peer pressure often makes the minority feel awkward and out of place causing them to give in to the majority. Many times students will just try to fit in because they want their ‘friends’ to like them and not be disappointed in them.

The current foreign language program at Wilson starts in 6^th grade. Considering what you know about brain development, is that a good age to start studying a foreign language or is it not necessarily the best age to start? Explain using at least two examples. (Chrissy)

              No, it is definitely not the best time to begin a foreign language program when a child is in 6th grade. When infants are first born, they can discriminate between phonemes of all languages. One example of this is displayed in Japanese and American babies and how they are able to distinguish between the phonemes /r/ and /l/. The Japanese language cannot tell the difference between these two phonemes once their language matures, but infants who are under one year of age can do this. The ability to do this lessens by the age of one year (Sternberg, 1999). This supports the notion that humans are born with some sort of device that facilitates the ability to learn any language as infants.

              As they age that critical period ends and babies become able to discriminate only between phonemes in the language that they hear spoken by caretakers/parents. Children’s brains are most able to fully acquire a second language before the onset of puberty. This is called the optimal age hypothesis (DeGroot & Berry, 1992). Sixth grade is not early enough to start learning language. For example, when I went to Argentina last spring, all the girls on the field hockey teams we played could speak English very well because they had been taking the language for so many years. I felt very out of place because my vocabulary and ability to communicate to them in Spanish was very minimal. I wish that I would have had to opportunity to begin speaking Spanish at an earlier age in order to increase my ability to understand and speak the language more fluently.