Phase Two Part VI

Part 6: (Laura)

Five ways to Teach:

1.       Question: How does neuroscience effect psychology and how humans behave?

2.       Movie on neuroscience

3.       Lecture/notes on neuroscience

4.       Hands-on activity with neuroscience

5.       Class discussion on neuroscience

Phase Two Part V

Cognition- all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. For example, learning a new language, like Spanish. I need to think about what I am saying by the stuff I already know and remember how to say it properly, and then communicate it. (Molly)

Concept- a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. For example, plants are organized into grouping depending on their color and/or type. (Molly)

Prototype- a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). For example, other types of birds such as hawks. (Molly)

Algorithm- a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier but also more error-prone-use of heuristics. For example, Kraft mac&cheese directions or directions on how to assemble a new patio set. (Molly)

Heuristic- a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. For example, telling someone to look at the email to discover what the directions are from the coach. (doesn’t give the exact directions but tells you how to discover them). (Molly)

Insight- a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. For example, finding the answer to a really hard math equation. (Molly)

Confirmation bias- a tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions. For example, researching the same item that you just bought to confirm that you actually did buy it at the lowest price. (Molly)

Fixation- the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving. For example, having a set way to bake a certain food and not changing it even though people give suggestions. (Molly)

Mental Set- a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helping in solving a new problem. For example, being persistent in the way you study for a test. This strategy may not work for other classes. (Molly)

Functional fixedness- the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.  For example, my mom asked me to bring in fire wood.  I knew we had a fire wood holder thing that I could use but I could not find it.  I searched everywhere for twenty minutes until I finally found it when in reality I could have just used a blanket or a cloth to put the wood in since they both essentially do the same thing, but I had my mind set. (Chrissy)

Representativeness heuristic- judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information.  For example, if I meet someone with a laid back attitude and long hair, I might assume they are Californian, whereas someone who is very polite but rigid may be assumed to be English. (Chrissy)

Availability heuristic- estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events common.  For example, a person argues that cigarette smoking is not unhealthy because his grandfather smoked three packs of cigarettes a day and lived to be 100. The grandfather's health could simply be an unusual case that does not speak to the health of smokers in general. (Chrissy)

Overconfidence- tendency to be more confident that correct, overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments.  If one goes into a test overconfident and doesn’t really prepare because they think they know everything, their results will not be favorable for them usually. (Chrissy)

Framing- the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.  For example, if statistics are posed in a more positive manner, people will respond better.  If a person is going into surgery the doctor will tell them that 99% of people recover perfectly instead of 1% do not recover. (Chrissy)

Belief bias- tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seen invalid.  For example, someone my say that some good ice skaters are not professional hockey players, but will reject an assertion that some professional hockey players are not good ice skaters which is possible although seems unlikely. (Chrissy)

Belief perseverance- clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.  This often causes conflicts.  For example, my sister is queen of this.  She doesn’t like to admit she is wrong so she will continue to insist that her belief is right no matter if she is or isn’t.  This leads to a good argument between us because I tend to do the same thing. (Chrissy)

Artificial intelligence- the science of designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things and to simulate human though processes like reasoning, learning, and understanding language.  Industrial robots that can sense their environment. (Chrissy)

Computer neural networks- computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells, performing tasks like learning to recognize visual patterns and smells (Chrissy)

Language-our spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning. Example: every culture, continent, group of people, and even organisms have their own languages. They communicate information from one to another in a form of language. Each language is not the same, but it is used for the same purpose of communication. (Nina)

Phoneme-in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. Example: the k sound in the words kit and skill. Even though most native speakers don't notice this, in most dialects, the k sounds in each of these words are actually pronounced differently: they are different speech sounds. (Nina)

Morpheme-in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) Example: In Spanish, the prefix of a verb is kept when changing tenses. When translating “comer”, which means to eat, into different verb tenses, the “com” stays the same to keep the meaning of the word as the endings change: como, comes, come, comemos, coméis, comen, etc. (Nina)

Grammar-in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Example: Knowing the grammar of a language allows people to communicate and understand each other. If a sentence in Spanish reads: Corrió rápidamente a la tienda, a person who understand the grammar of the language would know it says: He ran fast to the store. (Nina)

Semantics-the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning. For example: a semantic rule tells us that adding –s to make means that it is happening in present tense. (Nina)

Syntax-the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. Example: In English, if the sentence read: I will go to the store at seven, in Spanish it would translate to: Voy a ir a la tienda a las siete. In English, the noun (person) needs to be stated to determine who is doing the action. In Spanish, the noun (or person) doing the action does not need to be stated because the ending of the verb indicates that person. (Nina)

Babbling stage-beginning at 3 to 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. For example, a few months after my cousin was born, he constantly uttered “goo goo gah gah”.  (Laura)

One-word stage-the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. After my cousin passed the babbling stage, he could only speak simple words such as “mamma”. (Laura)

Two-word stage-beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements. Because my cousins have a cat, at this stage my younger cousin always said “black cat”. (Laura)

Telegraphic speech-early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram- “go car” –using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words. When hungry, my cousin always asked for food saying he “want food”. (Laura)

Linguistic determinism-Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think. For example, a person that speaks two dissimilar languages, such as English and Chinese, could take the same personality test in each language and score differently. (Laura)

1.        Why does everything covered in chapters 8, 9, and 10 fall under the field of cognitive psychology? Provide three different examples of how it does (one from each chapter). (Molly)           
           Everything covered in chapter 8, 9, and 10 are all under the field of cognitive psychology because this field studies all mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember and learn. Since most of the body’s functions are dependent on the brain to control every part of them, cognitive psychology is a major part to understanding this concept. For example, in chapter 8, we learned about conditioning. This requires someone to behave a certain way and receive a certain response. This is related to cognitive psychology because this process includes remember what the response was to a certain behavior. We think about what happened last time we did something similar to what we were about to do. In chapter 9, there was a lot of information about memory and encoding information. This knowledge is relevant to cognitive psychology because this field deals with thinking, remembering, and learning the facts. Short-term and long-term memory is related to the field of cognitive psychology because it explains how the brain processes information, what it takes to have information retained, and why the brain loses information quickly after it is read. Chapter 10 deals with prototypes, insights, and problem solving. This is under the field of cognitive psychology because it involves the brain and how it perceives, categorizes and organizes information.  

2.       Create a category hierarchy to organize a concept of your choosing (DO NOT use the one in the book). Make sure you label a prototype as well. (the best thing to do is to create one for neuroscience).(Nina)

3.       Explain the relationship between functional fixedness and problem solving. Provide an example that illustrates the relationship (this should be no more than 2 sentences). (Nina)Functional fixedness (the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions) is an impediment to problem solving. A common example involves a group of people who want to enter a locked room when they have no key, and they think that using the key is the only way to open the door. A solution often arises when somebody thinks to insert a credit card between the door and the door jamb, releasing the lock.

4.      How can you use what you know about thinking and language to improve your learning strategy?  Provide two examples. (Chrissy)

One way we can improve our learning strategy is to organize our information in a way that is pleasing to the brain.  Meaning that it flows, looks nice, and makes sense.  Chunking our information will help because grouping the items can make it easier to learn.  In addition, we could put the information to a jingle.  For example, I still remember the Canada Provinces because they were put to the tune ‘William Tell Overture’ and I learned it in sixth grade.  I think if we display our information into an easy and organized fashion, it will help.  Also, if we find easy way to remember things like by using a mnemonic device. 

5.       How can you use your knowledge of language acquisition and the way that we read, speak, and think to help create your learning strategy? (Laura)       Our words influence the way we think. People use language when classifying and remembering. Language’s power to influence thought makes vocabulary building a crucial part of education. To expand language is to expand the ability to think. In young children, thinking develops and in hand with language. That is why teaching new words teaches new ideas and new ways of thinking. Language transforms experience, fuels imagination, and links people to one another. This means that to create a learning strategy, it is crucial to provide new vocabulary in order to expand thinking and initiate a new way to think.

6.       Summarize how you will use thinking an d language in your learning strategy below. Make sure to include at least 6 different ways you are going to utilize knowledge. (Laura)As previously stated, language plays a huge in the way we think. It influences what type of thinking and how experienced our thinking is. Therefore, language will play a role in our learning strategy. New terms will be learned so that new thinking will take place and expanded. Ways in which we could include language in our learning strategy is a discussion between classmates, lectures, taking notes, hands-on activities such as games, reading, and projects. All of these learning strategies provide different opportunities for language to be a reoccurring theme in the class. A discussion and activities allow for students to actually use the language and terms. Lectures call for the students to repeatedly listen to the language; projects and notes let students constantly see and use the language. Finally, reading calls for students to continually see and comprehend new language and terms.

Phase Two Part IV

Memory- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. (Molly)

Memory loss- can be as mobile as before and remember things by looking at old photos and remember who people are. However people like this do not know the day of the week or remember short-term things. (Molly)

Memory feats- people who can remember large amounts of information. (Molly)

Memory like a computer?- Some ways our memory is like a computer’s information-processing system. To remember any event requires that we get information into our brain (encoding), retain that information (storage), and later get it back out (retrieval). First a computer translates input into an electronic language, just like the brain encodes information into a neural language. (Molly)

How neuroscience fits into memory- neuroscience fits into memory because neuroscience studies the brain. It studies how information is transferred around and stored. Memory relies on the function of the parts of the brain.  (Molly)

Sensory memory(page 354) include all types- the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. An iconic memory is a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. An echoic memory is a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still e recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. (Molly)

Long-term memories (page 355) include all storage- The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Our brains are not like attics, which once filled can store more items only if we discard old ones. Our capacity for storing information permanently in long-term memory is essentially unlimited. (Molly)

Short-term memory (page 355): our short-term memory span for information just presented is limited. A seconds-long retention of up to about seven items, depending on the information and how it is presented. Unless you rehearse the information to encode it for long-term storage, it is hard to recall it. Short-term memory is not only limited in duration, but also in capacity. (Molly)

The role of emotion in memory: emotion has a powerful impact on the things we can remember. We learn from past experience and reinforcement. (Molly)

The steps of encoding: some encoding is automatic processing (little of no effort that encodes an enormous amount of information about space, time and frequency), while others are effortful processing (requires repetition and attention). Mnemonic devices depend on the memorability of visual images and of information that is organized into chunks. Organizes information into chunks and hierarchies also aids memory. We first record-to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory, from which it is processed into a short-term memory bin, where we encode it for long-term memory and later retrieval. (Molly)

Ebbinghaus’ retention curve-Ebbignhaus found that he more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2, said simply, the more time we spend learning novel information, the more we retain it. (Nina)

Spacing effect-the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (Nina)

What we encode-When processing verbal information for storage, we usually encode its meaning. We tend not to remember things exactly as they were. Rather, we remember what we encoded. (Nina)

Kinds of encoding-                Visual encoding-the encoding of picture images
                Acoustic encoding-the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
                Semantic encoding-the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words (Nina)

Levels of processing-Processing a word deeply-by its meaning (Semantic encoding)-produces better recognition of it at a later time than does shallow processing by attending to its appearance or sound. (Nina)

Imagery and memory-Imagery is mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. People remember words that lend themselves to pictures images better than we remember abstract, low-imagery words. Two encodes are better than one. (Nina)

Mnemonics-memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. (Nina)

Ways to organize information for encoding- Organizing information for encoding involves grouping them in chunks or hierarchies.  Chunking occurs naturally and automatically; it is organizing items into familiar, manageable units. A hierarchy is an arrangement of items to aid memory. (Nina)

Memory trace- Engrams are a hypothetical means by which memory traces are stored as biophysical or biochemical change in the brain (and other neural tissue) in response to external stimuli. Our sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory retain information for varying time periods.  Our physical memory trace gradually decays; memories do not reside in single, specific spots. (Nina)

Iconic memory-a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. (Nina)

Echoic memory- the use of auditory sensory images; if one’s attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds while it still lingers in one’s mind’s echo chamber.  For example, sometimes when my mom is talking to me, I will be texting or looking on Facebook and she will always say, “Are you listening to me?” and I will have to quickly think of the things I selectively heard and repeat them so she will believe that I was paying attention to her.  (Chrissy)

Long-term potentiation (LTP)- an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory association.  For example, a mouse is placed in a pool of murky water; it will swim around to find the hidden plat form to climb out.  With repetition the mouse will learn to do this faster with fewer mistakes.  It does this with the help of visual cues around since it cannot smell or see the platform. (Chrissy)

Amnesia- the loss of memory.  For example, a girl got in a car accident and hit her head.  Now she cannot retain any new information and still thinks it is the same day that it was when she got in to the accident a few years back (Chrissy)

Implicit memory vs. explicit memory- implicit memory deals with the fact that a person with amnesia can learn how to do something (procedural memory) where as a explicit memory means that they may not know and declare that they know (declarative memory).  It is memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. (Chrissy)

Hippocampus- (noticed in autopsies of amnesia patients) a limbic system structure that keeps track of explicit memories of new names, images, and events  (Chrissy)

Recall- the ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness.  For example, on tests like the PSSA’s I will recall information that I learned years ago that I didn’t even know that I remembered. (Chrissy)

Serial positioning effect- our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list, then try to remember the ones in the middle (Chrissy)

Recognition- a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.  For example, after meeting so many people through field hockey I often recognize people at every field hockey event I go to but it takes me a little bit until I can identify them and make the connection (Chrissy)

Relearning- a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.  If you learn something and forget it, when you go to relearn it, you will learn it quicker the second time.  For example, at the beginning of every year in my math class that I’m taking, we will relearn the material that we learned the previous year just to make sure we remember and understand it.  It takes remarkably less time. (Chrissy)

Priming- the activation of particular associations in memory, often unconsciously.  “wakening associations”. (Chrissy)

Mere-exposure- the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. (Laura)

Déjà vu- that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. (Laura)

Mood congruent memory- the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood. (Laura)

Proactive vs. retroactive interference- Proactive interference is the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information and retroactive interference is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. (Laura)

Repression- in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. (Laura)

Misinformation effect- incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event (Laura)

Source amnesia- attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (Laura)

Binocular Cues- depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence that depend on the use of two eyes (Laura)

Monocular Cues- distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone (Laura)

1.       Consider everything you know about the way memory works in the human brain. How can you tap into that in order to construct your learning strategy? Provide at least 5 different ways to use memory to create an effective learning strategy? (Molly)
To effectively retain information into your memory, there are several different learning strategies. For example, visual encoding (or being able to see information and retain it in your memory) can be utilized by posters, PowerPoints, pictures, demonstrations and videos. Acoustic encoding (meaning being able to retain information through audio) can be useful in learning by doing lectures or even listening to songs about the information. Semantic encoding of information can be helpful for learning because it involves the meaning of words. For example, reading a book or reading over notes would be examples of semantic encoding.

2.        How is the human mind faulty in remembering information? Explain how that could impact the construction of your learning strategy (provide 3 examples). (Nina)Short-term memory is limited not only in duration but also in capacity. Our short-term memory typically stores just seven or so bits of information.  Also, short-term memory can be limited because of short-term memory decay. Unless rehearsed, verbal information may be quickly forgotten. People who like to cram and study the period before a test will have problems retaining the information because of short-term memory. Additionally, despite the brain’s vast storage capacity, we do not store most information with the exactness of a tape recorder. Rather, forgetting occurs as new experiences interfere with our retrieval and as the physical memory trace gradually decays. This could impact learning because as more information is being learned, other information is being forgotten. Also, iconic memory (a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli) only allows us to recall a scene in amazing detail for a few tenths of a second. If a photograph was used to when being taught certain information, the detail of the scene is remembered for no more than a few tenths of a second. This method is very difficult when trying to retain information by using a picture-image. There are many faults in the human brain when remembering information.

3.       What kinds of strategies can you use to study in order to help you remember information better for the AP exam? (Chrissy)

There are many strategies that can be used to study.  First of all, when we learn something we get information into our brain which is called encoding.  Then we retain the information called storage and then we later recall this information called retrieval.  In order to learn the information we can use hands on activities like games as well as critical thinking to go beyond the text book and what is written.  We can also explore the subject into a deeper matter and trying to find real life examples to make it personal.  Associating certain subjects with different things will make it easy to remember for example chunking, making a song or a little rhyme can help remember information.  In addition, lectures and note taking is also very helpful.  Finally, the repetition of important facts will help put the information into long term memory instead of just memorizing something for a test the next day.  These methods are examples that fall under visual encoding, acoustic encoding, and semantic encoding.

4.       Consider Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs (not in 9), how can this concept about the needs of human beings impact memory and learning? Provide 3 examples to prove your point. (Laura)Maslow developed a theory of personality that accurately describes many realities of personal experiences. Maslow’s theory of needs include self-actualization, esteem, love/belonging, safety, and physiological. If these "deficiency needs" are not met, the body gives no physical indication but the individual feels anxious and tense. This impacts humans with memory and learning because people must meet these five basic needs before truly learning. It is a useful guide for generally understanding why students behave the way that they do and in determining how learning. Maslow theorized that these needs must be met before a child can learn. A child who is hungry cannot learn. A child who is stressed cannot learn. A child who is in an environment absent of unconditional love cannot learn. The brain of a child who feels emotionally or physically threatened produces chemicals that actually inhibit learning.

5.       Research Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. How do they tie into what you learned about human memory and also, how can they help you create an effective learning strategy? Provide 3 pieces of factual supportyou’re your reasoning. (Laura)Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives is a multi-tiered model of classifying thinking according to six cognitive levels of complexity. These levels include remembering (retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory), understanding (constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining), applying (carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing), analyzing (breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing), evaluating (making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing), and creating (putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing). The steps listed are ways in which the human memory works to remember specific things. The theory of multiple intelligence as traditionally defined in IQ tests does not sufficiently describe the wide variety of cognitive abilities humans display. These two theories will help to create an effective learning strategy because they explain how the mind processes and remembers material, and that there are different ways for people to learn certain items.

Phase Two Part III

• Design a way to collect data from your peers about how they learn.We’re collecting data by making the survey below and having various students throughout our school fill it out.

You learn and retain information best through…

                A.) Lecturing/Taking Notes
                B.) Hands-on Activities
                C.) Computer Based
                D.) Project Based
                E.) Reading/Self Taught

• Create a way to present your data.

In December, we will present our information through posters, games, songs, and possibly a scrapbook.

• Reflect on your data collection.

The survey was very reliable and it continued our ideas of using the various ways of presenting.

• Real World Application.

It can help teachers know how to teach and explain how students learn best. Anyone is able to use our data because we are just trying to help our peers learn this information better.

Phase Two Part II

1. Explain a classical conditioning using a scenario that YOU have created. DO NOT use one the book lists. Try to explain this type of conditioning using something that is relevant to your life: school, home, or work could all be areas you can pull from.  (Molly)
          Classical conditioning can be explained in my family. My mom is very down to earth and encouraging. She wears a certain perfume. Overtime, I have associated that perfume smell with a comforting and welcoming feeling. I feel at home whenever I smell that perfume. The warm feeling when I am in the presence of my mom is the UCR. The UCS is the presence of my mom. The CS would is the perfume smell. The comforting feeling I get from the smell of her perfume is the CR.
2. Explain operant conditioning using a scenario that YOU have created. DO NOT use one the book lists. Try to explain this type of conditioning using something that is relevant to your life: school, home, or work could all be areas you can pull from. (Molly)
           A personal scenario that is an example of operant conditioning for punishment is when my parents make me and my siblings sit on the steps. If we talk back, we have to sit on the steeps for a certain amount of time. By sitting on the steps, something we do not want to do, we are punished and try to not give attitude to our parents anymore. Another example of operant conditioning, but used for reinforcement, is when my parents gave candy when we were being potty trained. When I and my sisters were learning how to go to the bathroom, my mom would give us M&M’S. This reinforced that using the bathroom was a good thing and we should keep doing it. For this reason, when we were younger, we associated the bathroom with M&M’S.
3. Compare Classical and Operant Conditioning. How are they the same? How are they different? (Molly)
          Classical conditioning is when someone learns by association. It is involuntary and automatic. There is a particular relationship between two things. Basically, classical conditioning pairs two things together, and when one occurs, then this means the other thing will occur also. Subjects expect that the conditioned stimulus signals the arrival of the conditioned response. Operant conditioning involves more reinforcement. When someone does a particular action, they can be positively reinforced, which normally causes him/her do it again, or negatively reinforced, which punishes him/her and causes him/her to not to it anymore. Operant conditional is operated by the environment. There is an association of the response with the consequences. Classical and Operant conditioning are similar because they both are revolved around learning techniques. They are two ways people/animals discover things mainly by cause and effect.
4. Do you think either plays a role in how you respond to teachers and your academic role here at Wilson? Explain. (everyone)
          Yes, operant conditioning definitely plays a role here at Wilson. For example, this school district negatively reinforces cell phone use, disrespect, and violation of the rules by punishing the students in detention, suspension, or a call home to their parents. We are also positively reinforced with things like the PSSAs. If we receive a good score on this test, then we are granted with a parking spot or prom tickets. (Molly)

Yes, I feel that both Classical and Operant Conditioning play a role in how you respond to teachers and your academic role here at Wilson. Classical conditioning is used by many of the teachers in Wilson. If a teacher has a certain way of setting up tests, for example an essay the first day and multiple choice the next day, students adapt to these circumstances and know that after every essay test, there is a multiple choice test. Additionally, I think teachers use operant conditioning during their class. If a student is praised (positively reinforced) for an excellent grade, the student is more likely to do well in his/her class. Many students’ grades are affected by the way teachers react to how well they do in school. (Nina)

I believe that Operant Conditioning plays a huge role in how students respond to a teacher.  This is saying that students associate their behavior with their consequences.  They will essentially repeat rewarded behaviors and not punished ones.  The way the teacher prevents himself/herself is important because if he/she demands respect and sets that tone from the beginning of the year, he/she will get it.  If the teacher appears to be vulnerable, it seems that students try to take advantage of the teacher.  For example, when I was in ninth grade, we had a sub because our teacher when to China to adopt a child.  The teacher was very young and instead of setting the rules from the beginning she almost tried to be more like a friend and was very shy and hesitant with punishment.  Some of the students in my class were very disrespectful and rude to her.  They refused to listen and do what she asked.  I believe if our sub would have come into our class and set the tone demanding respect she would have gotten it.  (Chrissy)

I think that both operant and classical conditioning play a role here at Wilson. For operant conditioning, reinforcers are given, for example, studying hard makes for a student to get good grades. Also, giving detentions keeps students from repeating bad, unwanted behaviors. For classical conditioning, bells ring at the end of each class so the students associate the bell to leaving one class and heading for another. (Laura)

5. How can understanding classical and operant conditioning help us to understand the way we learn? Provide at least two examples to illustrate your point. (Molly)
          Classical and operant conditioning can help us understand how we learn by discovering the mental processes that we possess when there is a result to a stimuli. It can help us comprehend why we react the way we do to certain situations or why we do things more often opposed to doing some things less frequently. For example, if an individual receives money from his/her parents every time he/she scores a goal for a sport, he/she is being positively reinforced and will most likely score more often (extrinsic motivation). If we know who performs the best when being bribed, we can probably utilize this knowledge to make them succeed. If we understand that the best way for some individuals is by associating two things like in classical conditioning, we can use this to create an effective way to advertise. For example, if a commercial shows a product and targets it to relate to their emotions and feelings of a person’s past, then the product would probably sell better, especially if the product brings good memories back.
6. In your normal day here at school, explain a time where you have seen the use of positive reinforcement and one of negative reinforcement. For each one, analyze the impact that it had on you or the class you were in. (Nina)
           During school, I see both positive and negative reinforcements. A positive reinforcement occurred when a student received an A on a test and was praised for his work ethic. The teacher smiled at him as she returned the test. The A on the test and the smile from the teacher are positive reinforcers. I could tell that the boy was impressed with his work and was excited for receiving this grade. It impacted the class because this boy became more involved with the class activities. This improvement and positive reinforcement from the teacher encourages the boy to continue to work harder to receive high grades. A negative reinforcement occurred in school when a student studied for an exam to avoid getting a poor grade. The low grade is the negative reinforcer for studying. The student learned that he had to study in order to avoid receiving a poor grade; in turn, he learned more about the subject and was able to participate in class and do well on further test.
7. How do punishments impact your learning here in school? Consider what you know about punishment systems from the learning chapter to help guide your response. (Nina)      Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement; punishment decreases a behavior.  A major punishment in our school system is that failing can get you held back. Being held back advocates a student to do well the next year so he or she passes and is able to graduate. Another major punishment in our school system deals with cheating and plagiarism. If a student is caught cheating and plagiarizing, he or she will receive academic consequences and may be subject to the school discipline code. These punishments encourage students to do their own work; these consequences positively influence a student to work harder and perform to his or her abilities.
   Also, another major punishment involves cellphones. If a student is caught using a cellphone in school, he or she receives detention and, at times, have to pay money to get his or her phone back. These consequences enforce that students should not be using their cellphones during school and, instead, paying attention to their schoolwork.  Punishments effectively impact our school.
8. We talked about the impact of grades during Unit 2. Do you think they fall into this unit at all? Why or why not? (Nina)
             In Unit 2, we talked about how grades impact students; we decided that students want and need to do well to succeed. This idea is affected by the environment and society. This idea about grades definitely falls into this unit. Grades have both positive and negative reinforcements on students’ lives. Grades are believed to determine success. Therefore, these reinforcements are the reasons why students are succeeding; they are striving to do well in school and receive good grades. Also, I think the environment encourages this success and creates these reinforcements. Additionally, society guides students into being successful. Society creates undesirable punishments in order to decrease the frequency of a preceding behavior. Negative actions, such as cheating, have consequences. These consequences are created in order for students to be focused and led in the right direction (towards success). Society influences students to succeed. The impact of grades during Unit 2 falls into this unit.
9. Your textbook has a very positive bias when explaining the implications of Skinner’s research on operant conditioning. Do you agree or disagree with this bias? Explain by providing at least two examples that illustrate your point. (Nina)
            I disagree with the textbook’s positive bias when explaining the implications of Skinner’s research on operant conditioning. Skinner believed that external influences, not internal thoughts and feelings, shape behavior and by urging the use of operant principles to influence people’s behavior at school, work, and home. I believe that both internal and external influences shape behavior. Reinforcement with jobs well done is very effective in boosting productivity when the performance is desired. The external influence of money plays a role in the productivity, but so does the desire to do the job effectively for self-satisfaction and personal success. Additionally, when a person makes personal decisions, that person considers both external and internal influences. He or she considers their individual morals and beliefs, but also the external beliefs of his or her society. Both strongly effect a person’s decision with school, work, and at home. I disagree with the textbook’s positive bias when explaining the implications of Skinner’s research on operant conditioning because I believe that both internal and external influences shape behavior.
10. Let’s not forget learning my observation: Think of something that you do that might be influenced by what you have observed and explain it and how it applies to both the psychological aspect of our study and also the biological. (Chrissy)

          Over the years, I have watched my parents use coupons as well as talk about specific goals that they have set over the years.  I have begun to mimic their behavior and save money.  It has taught my siblings and me to be frugal with our money causing us to not be very big spenders.  We do not eat out very much and we do not shop often, but when we do we use coupons and look for sales.  If my parents would always be using credit cards and bringing home shopping bags it would have probably given me the impression that our money was limitless.  This behavior plays into the psychological aspect because it teaches us to plan our spending and to use what we have.  This behavior is really easy for us to mimic because of mirror neurons which are in the frontal lobe adjacent to the brain’s motor cortex.  They provide a neural basis for observational learning.

1. Consider the first two units that we discussed this year: the history of psychology and applying science to Psychology, how do they fit into our midterm project?  Provide at least three examples to illustrate your point. (Chrissy)
             The history of psychology and the science of psychology both play a role in our midterm project.  The different theories, learning strategies, and the evolution in psychology all impact our project.  For example, we are using a survey to see which learning method is most prevalent so that we can reach out to the most students.  This survey will tell us whether we need to have a more hands on discussion or if we should lecture with the students taking notes.  In addition, studying empiricism has helped because it is the view that knowledge comes from experience like through the senses.  This deals with observational learning and learning through experiments.  This will help us to make sure we are enforcing the terms and major points that are important through different methods.  We have come up with different ideas to help cover different learning types.  For example, we will display our project through games, posters, worksheets, and possibly a scrapbook.  These different ideas will help learn these units.  Finally, we will also try to implement the use of critical thinking so that the students will examine assumptions, evaluate evidence, and asses to their own conclusions on different topics. 
2.  How can you use what you know about the history of psychology and the science behind psychology to create your learning strategy?  Provide two paths you can take to incorporate knowledge into your final product. (Chrissy)
             Through the study of the history of psychology, theories have developed and evolved influencing our learning strategy.  For example, we could try to teach using empiricism or structuralism.  Empiricism deals with the fact the knowledge comes from experience and learn through observation where as structuralism is a more self reflective introspection meaning looking inward.  Structuralism has varies more depending on the person it deals with.  We are using empiricism because we believe that observational learning is very effective.  It will also help that they will be acquiring the knowledge through their different senses which will only help bind the knowledge into the brains.
3. You know some of the ways we learn—but what types of learners are there in our classroom (use your survey data to complete this question)?  What ideas do you have for incorporating those learners into your learning strategy? (Chrissy)            By using our survey, we decided to use some posters, games like memory, and a scrapbook to try to incorporate the learners into our strategy.  These methods will reach beyond just one learning type helping the majority of the students in the class.  These methods will also help them learn the information more by repetition of key points.  In addition, this will make them think critically about some of the points that we make.
4. How can we utilize psychology to help create learning strategies for all our learners? (Laura)       Psychology helps to provide insight to different people. When a teacher really understands and observes his/her student, he/she knows how that student learns the best. Knowing this could help to create a learning strategies for learners that suit the way they remember information.
5. How does biology play a role in how we develop learning strategies for learners? (Laura)
          Biology plays a huge role in learning. Biological predisposition allows or disallows organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. It is easier and natural for a learner to learn something that is biologically fit for them; for example, as stated in part I, when mice are put on a bar, they use their front arms to elicit a response off of a bar that moves because it is natural for them to run or pick up food with their front arms. It easier to develop learning strategies for learners when their biological predispositions are known.

Summarize what you have learned or will learn throughout Phase I and II and begin thinking about creating your learning strategy….

What is the most effective way to teach every learner neuroscience without falling back on rote memorization? (This one you will want to add on to as we move into chapters 9 and 10) (Laura)       An easy, yet effective way to teach learners neuroscience without memorization would be repetition. When learning something new, many learners tend to memorize what they are learning. However, if a teacher repeatedly does activities involving neuroscience each day, it starts to become engrained in the learner’s mind. Example activities could be to play “memory games” with cards and pictures that a student must match together, videos and lectures that pertain to neuroscience, or discussions with peers to increase the knowledge of neuroscience. There are many different learning/teaching strategies that could be used to learn neuroscience; however, it is important to keep repeating different activities on neuroscience to keep the information processing in the brain. (Laura)

Phase Two Part I

Learning-a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.(Molly)

Associative learning-learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning). (Molly)

Conditional (classical)-a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also can be called Pavlovian Conditioning. (Molly)

Operant Conditioning-a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher. (Molly)

Behaviorism-the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists agree with 1, not 2. (Molly)

Observational learning- learning by observing others. (Molly)

Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment-started doing experiments involving learning when he noticed invariably salivation caused by food in dogs. At first Pavlov tried to imagine what the dog was thinking and feeling. Then, he paired neutral stimuli with food to see the dog’s reaction the next times he uses the same neutral stimuli. He eliminated other possible neutral stimuli by isolating the dog in a room. Pavlov hoped to see if the dog would associate the neutral stimuli with food and therefore, salivate. (Molly)

Findings of Pavlov’s experiment-Pavlov found that the dog did associate food (and salivation) to neutral stimuli (like a voice, buzzer, a touch, a light or a smell). Since the salivation in response to the food in the mouth was unlearned, it was called unconditioned response. The food stimulus was called the unconditioned stimulus. After the experiment, when the dog would associate the stimuli and salivation together, which means he learned. This is called conditioned response and conditioned stimulus. (Molly)

Acquisition-the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Provide an example of classical conditioning NOT found in your book-my mom is understanding, so when I smell her perfume I feel at home and comfortable. (Molly)

Extinction-the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (Molly)

Spontaneous Recovery-the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization (in context of learning)-the tendency, one a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination-in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Importance of Cognitive Processes in Classical Conditioning-Animals learn when to “expect” an unconditioned stimulus. The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response. It’s as if the animal learns an expectancy, an awareness of how likely it is that the UCS will occur. Conditioning occurs best when the CS and UCS have just the sort of relationship that would lead a scientist to conclude that the CS causes the UCS. This principle helps explain why conditioning treatments that ignore cognition often have limited success.

Importance of Biology in Classical Conditioning-An animal’s capacity for conditioning is constrained by its biology. The biological predispositions of each species dispose it to learn the particular associations that enhance its survival. Environments are not the whole story.

Taste Aversion (Research of John Garcia)-if sickened as late as several hours after tasting a particular novel flavor, the flavor is avoid in the future. Aversions are developed to the tastes, but not the sights or sounds.

An example of taste aversion not described in your book-My friend ate white cheddar popcorn and hours later, she was sick from it. She no longer eats white cheddar popcorn.

Watson, Rayner and research after Pavolv-Pavolv’s work provided a basis for John Watson’s idea that human emotions and behavior, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. Watson and Rayner showed how specific fears might be conditioned. Their subject was an 11-month old infant names Albert. “Little Albert” feared loud noises but not white rats. Watson and Rayner presented him with a white rat and, as he reached to touch it, stuck a hammer against a steel bar just behind his head. After seven repetitions of seeing the rat and hearing the frightening noise, Albert burst into tears at he mere sight of the rat. Five days later, Albert showed generalization of his condition response by reacting with fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat, but not dissimilar objects such as toys.
(the following review to operant conditioning)

Respondent behavior-behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behavior-behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Law of effects-Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Skinner Box (operant chamber)-a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animals rate of bar pressing or key pecking; used in operant conditioning research.

Shaping-an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal.

Successive approximations-one rewards responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior and ignore all other responses. It is a way to shape complex behaviors. Example: after we got our electric fence for my dog, she refused to cross the line even when the collar was off and she was on a leash. She would sit down and not budge. We used treats to make her come closer and closer until she finally crossed the line. Each time she took a step closer we gave her a treat to try to reinforce that she was okay to cross. (Chrissy)

Discriminative stimulus-psychologists try to shape nonverbal organisms to discriminate between stimuli as well as try to determine what they perceive like dogs can distinguish color? Experiments are used to see if we can shape them to respond to one stimulus and not another then they can perceive the difference. (Chrissy)

Reinforcement-any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response. (Chrissy)

Positive reinforcement- a tangible reward, praise for attention, or a reward. Example: a child was in speech class for eight years because he had trouble saying the “r” sound. He could not say words like “girl” or “car”. Throughout the classes, the teacher used positive reinforcement when the boy would pronounce the word correctly. Each time he did it right, he received a piece of candy to try to instill this behavior in the child. (Chrissy)

Negative reinforcement-this strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus. Example: a student does not pay attention during class and does not prepare for a test in his chemistry class. He receives a bad grade on the next test. After seeing the result of this test, the student changes his behavior in class by taking notes, asking questions, and studying for the test. Due to his bad test grade on the last one, he changes his behavior to help reduce his stress and anxiety. Example: my dad used to never wear his seat belt, but since he got a new car there is a constant beeping noise if he doesn’t put his seat belt on. He now wears his seat belt in order to turn off the annoying beeping sound. (Chrissy)

Primary reinforcers-an innately reinforcing stimulus like one that satisfies a biological need. Example- someone gets a glass of water to relieve their thirst. (Chrissy)

Conditioned reinforcer-a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. It is also known as the “secondary reinforcer”. Example: if a light signifies food is coming for a rat. The rat will work to turn on the light in order to try to get food. The light is a secondary reinforcer with food. (Chrissy)

Immediate reinforcer-if a child is whining to their parents because they want a cookie and the parent gives them a cookie right away to try to stop the child’s whining, then the child will begin to associate their whining to getting what they want. This will cause them to exhibit their behavior more frequently in order to get it. An immediate reinforcer means that they show a specific behavior they will immediately get that reinforcement like food for a rat or a cookie for a child who is whining. (Chrissy)

Delayed reinforcer- if the parent woujld delay the reinforcement by giving the child the reward later, it would keep them from making the connection of cause and effect. By waiting other behaviors will intervene and be reinforced to keep from the connection between cause and effect. Example: if I whine I will get what I want.

Reinforcement Schedules:
Variable-interval schedule- reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Produces a slow, steadying response.
Fixed-interval schedule- reinforce first response after a fixed time period. Causes a choppy stop and start pattern rather than a steady rate of response.
Variable-ratio schedules- provides reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses like gamblers. Produces high rates of responding because the reinforcers increase as the number of responses increase.
Fixed-ratio schedules- reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. This reduces awards.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement- responses are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not. The initial learning is slower compared to continuous but partial reinforcement has greater persistence and resistance to extinction.
Continuous reinforcement- the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs. Learning occurs more rapidly but once the reinforcement stops, the skill is forgotten quickly. (Chrissy)

Punishment-opposite of reinforcement; tries to increase a behavior while punishment decreases it. A punisher is any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior, usually by giving an undesirable consequence or taking away something desirable one. Example: if a young child yells back at a parent or is rude or disrespectful, they might take away dessert to try to have the child realize not to repeat this action. (Chrissy)

Cognitive map- a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. Example: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. They have learned the maze and will demonstrate their knowledge regardless if there is a reinforcer of not because they have made this “map” to remember their way.(Chrissy)

Latent Learning- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it (Laura)

Intrinsic Motivation vs. Extrinsic Motivation-intrinsic motivation is a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective and extrinsic motivation is the desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment (Laura)

How does cognition affect operant learning?  Cognition is all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communication and operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. Cognition impacts operant learning because cognition helps you to remember the reinforcer or diminisher.  (Laura)

How does biology play a role in operant learning? Animals and humans can most easily learn and retain behaviors that draw on their biological predispositions. For example, cats have inborn tendencies to leap high and land on their feet. (Laura)

Research after Skinner: Skinner repeatedly insisted that external influences not internal thoughts and feelings shaped behavior and by urging the use of operant principles to influence people’s behavior at school, work, and home. He said recognizing that behavior is shaped by its consequences, we should promote more desirable behavior.  (Laura)

Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior (Laura)

Mirror Neurons: Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so, the brain’s mirroring of another action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. (For example, when one person yawns, it causes others to yawn). (Laura)

Albert Bandura: Bandura conducted a controversial experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment, to study patterns of behavior associated with aggression. He learned that similar behaviors were learned by individuals modeling their own behavior after the actions of others. He believes part of whether we imitate a model is due to reinforcements and punishments. (Laura)

Prosocial Models: People who exemplify non-violent, helpful behavior can prompt similar behavior in others. (For example, Martin Luther King, Jr. set a prosocial example by using non-violence). (Laura)

The Impact of Television: The more hours children spend watching violent programs, the more at risk they are at for aggression and crime as teens and adults. (Laura)

The Good News about TV: Correlation does not imply causation. Therefore, correlation studies do not prove that viewing violence causes aggression. Maybe aggressive children prefer violent programs.  (Laura)

Desensitizing Youth: Prolonged exposure to violence desensitizes viewers. They become more indifferent to it when later viewing a brawl, whether on television or in real life. (Laura)

Provide one example of Observational Learning from your lifetime (4)-
An example of observation learning from my life is when my mom used to do my hair when I was younger. I would watch how she would pull my hair up and put a hair tie in it to keep it up. By watching (observing) how my mom did my hair, I was able to learn how to do my hair on my own. (Nina)

After my younger cousin was born when I was 7, I watched how my aunt held, fed, and comforted the baby boy. I watched every move like how she rocked him and held the bottle. When I went home, I brought out my baby doll that I always played with and imitated my aunt’s actions. I pretended to rock my baby to sleep, comfort her when she “cried”, feed her when she was hungry, and sing her a lullaby to help her fall asleep. I watched my aunt take care of my younger cousin and repeated her actions on my only baby doll. (Chrissy)

When I was younger, my mom always used to make cookies, and I would watch her every time. Every holiday, I was surrounded by my older sister and mom making cookies. By watching them make cookies, it encouraged me to want to make them; I learned how to make cookies by watching them. (Molly)

In order to encourage me to read, my parents read to me, and surrounded me with books and people that read a lot.  (Laura)