Phase One

Neural communication-The body’s circuitry, the nervous system, consist of billions of individual cells called neuron. A neuron receives signals from other neurons through its branching dendrites and cell body, combines these signals in the cell body, and transmits an electrical impulse (the action potential) down its axon. When these signals reach the end of the axon, they stimulate the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. These molecules pass on their excitatory in inhibitory messages as they traverse the synaptic gap between neurons and combine with receptor sites on neighboring neurons. (Nina)

The impact of neurotransmitters- They influence our motions and our emotions; particular neurotransmitters may have particular effects on behavior and emotions. (Nina)

Impact of drugs/chemicals on n. communication- Some drugs (agonists) excite by mimicking particular neurotransmitters or blocking their reuptake; others (antagonists) inhibit by blocking neurotransmitters. (Nina)

Nervous system-the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system. The nervous system functions as a way for information to travel and consists of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It allows information to travel quickly to different parts of the body. (Laura)

Peripheral nervous system-the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. It is made up of two components-somatic (controls the movements of our skeletal muscles) and autonomic (controls the glands and the muscles of our internal glands). (Laura)

Central nervous system-is the spinal cord that connects the peripheral nervous system to the brain. The neural pathways that govern our reflexes is the work of the spinal cord. Another pathway enables the pain reflex. The other part of the central is the brain receiving information, interpreting it, and deciding responses. (Laura)

Endocrine system-The body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (Nina)

Limbic system- A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. It includes hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. (Nina)

Methods of researching the brain-There are four methods to research the brain: clinical observations, manipulating the brain, recording the brain’s electrical activity, and neuroimaging techniques. Clinical observation is the oldest way of studying brain-mind connections and observes the effects of brain diseases and injuries; gradually, through this process, the brain was being mapped and now provides clues to our own brains’ inner workings. Manipulating the brain is a faster, newer way that can electrically, chemically, or magnetically stimulate various parts of the brain and note the effects. Recording the brain’s electrical activity gives off electrical, metabolic, and magnetic signals that would enable neuroscientists to eavesdrop on the brain. Neuroimaging techniques provide a way to see inside the rain without lesioning it. For example computed tomography scans (x-ray photographs that reveal brain damage), positron emission tomography scans (depicts brain activity by showing each brain area’s consumption of its chemical fuel), magnetic resonance imaging (detailed picture of the br-ain’s soft tissues). This method allows researchers to have instant access to reveal activity in a particular brain area.  (Laura)

Parts of the brain-The brain is divided into four regions, or lobes. The frontal lobes are located in the front of the brain and are involved in speaking and muscle movements in making plans and judgments. The parietal lobes are near the top and a little to the back of the brain and includes the sensory cortex. The occipital lobes are at the back of the brain and are involved in the visual perceptions. Finally, the temporal lobes are right above the ears and include auditory areas. (Molly)

Plasticity-The brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development. (Nina)

The divided brain (functions of each side)-information from the left half of an individual’s field of vision goes to his/her right hemisphere and information from the right half of one’s visual field goes to his/her left hemisphere. The right side of the brain is responsible for visual perception perceiving differences, emotions, and recognizing faces). The left side is more responsible for speech and language. (Molly)

Nature vs. Nurture-controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. (Nina)

Genes/data-The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein. (Nina)

Evolutionary psychology-The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of Natural Selection. (Nina)

Natural selection-The principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed to succeeding generations. (Nina)

Sexuality/gender-Men have a stronger sex drive than women. Going along with the traditional masculine attitude, most men are more comfortable with casual sex. This can be explained partially because men are higher risk takers than women. Men most likely find youthful looking women more attractive. Women find healthy, mature, dominant, and bold men more attractive. Women also like men who are in it for the long run. (Molly)

Behavior genetics-The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. (Nina)

Twins (importance of studies)-The studying of twins is very important because it identifies the heritability of several traits and even disorders. By studying twins, geneticists can determine their individual differences. They are able to weigh genetic and environmental contributions to their personalities. By discovering that twins normally share similar personalities, they can be experimented in different environments to see how they react and develop. Twins are important for studies because they are basically clones of each other. They can help test the importance of nature and nurture. (Molly)

Adoption Studies- Many studies have been conducted on adoption to see the effects of parenting on the child. With adoption, two groups are created, the biological parents and siblings and the adoptive parents and siblings. The main question that is studied is, is the child more like the adopted parents who control the environment or more like their biological parents who they share the same traits? It has been found that regardless if they are biologically related or not do not resemble each other in their personality. The environmental factors nothing to do with the personality of the child. Even biological siblings are very different with regard to personality. Although environment does not affect their personality, it plays a huge role in their child’s attitude, values, manners, faith, and politics. Even though there is a greater risk of psychological disorder, children thrive with the adoptive parents as well as have a huge connection with them. The example that the adoptive parents set for their children will often be carried forward with the child. For example, if the parents are self-giving, more than likely the adopted child will also be self-giving. (Chrissy)

Temperament/Heritability- Temperament: a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. Heritability: the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; may vary on the range of populations and environments studied. (Nina)

Genes and the environment- Genes and experience are both very important, but their effects are interconnected. There is no way of saying one affects this much and the other effects the rest. They work together to determine different reactions from people. The environment in which a child is brought up in can affect how they respond and others respond to different situations. For example, if a child is catered to and spoiled at home, they might come across problems with someone like a teacher. If the child is disrespectful or acts as he would at home, the teacher might reprimand the child because he disagrees with the child’s behavior; but, the teacher could also be very welcoming and nice to another child who is very respectful and studious. The teacher will have a different response to the child than the parents do because traits stir up different responses. Scarr states, “Children experience us as different parents, depending on their own qualities.” With age, people choose the environments in which they surround themselves around. Genes affect others reactions to and influences on us; therefore, it is no longer nature vs. nurture, but nurture vs. nature. (Chrissy)

Molecular genetics-The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. (Nina)

Parenting influence/interference- Parents have a huge impact on children. First, all the genes inherited by the child from the parents play a major role in bother their outer and inner appearance. Parents not only influence the child’s genes, but also many of their beliefs. Parents have a huge impact on religion, traditions, views on different subjects, and behavior. For example, my family believes thoroughly in philanthropy, or giving back to the community, and it has been drilled in our brains that we should do this; therefore, it is not just a nice deed we do once, it is a habit. In addition, we believe family comes first and is very important to us. Every Sunday we go to my grandparent’s house to have dinner with my mother’s side of the family. This has become a tradition and has affected my values, my attitude, and my manners. Parents may not have control over the personality of their child, but they do have the ability to influence it. (Chrissy)

Peer influence (group influence)- Our peers influence us every day. Peers are chosen through “selective effect” which means that children look for peers with similar attitudes and interests. Peers influence each other just as much if not more as family does. For example, teens usually start things like smoking because their friends express the benefits, the feelings, and offer cigarettes. Parental influences are less important than peer. People choose who to play with, work with, and mate with. It is important to surround oneself with people who care about them. Parenting and peers are complimentary. Peers help shape the lives of teens through the different experiences that occur. Peers help teach working together and cooperation. Peer pressure occurs everywhere, including Wilson. It is human nature to conform to group of people in fear of what will happen if one speaks out against the common belief. (Chrissy)   

Culture-The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. (Nina)

Variations over time- Human variations across cultures and overtime show who differing norms or expectations guide behavior. Cultures differ in their norms for personal space, expressiveness, and pace of life. (Nina)

The nature and nurture of gender- Although males and females share similarly adaptive bodily procedures, differing sex chromosomes and differing concentrations of sex hormones lead to significant physiological sex differences. Yet, gender differences vary widely depending upon cultural socialization through social learning and gender schemes.  (Nina)

How does neuroscience help or hinder the credibility of psychology as a science? (Nina)

                Neuroscience helps the credibility of psychology as a science. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of biology, and ultimately, everything psychological is simultaneously biological. Science is generally defined as knowledge gained through study or practice, using observation and experimentation that describes and explains natural phenomena. Neuroscientists study the molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system. Through studying these different aspects, neuroscientists are able explain why and how we think, feel, and act. For example, studying the hypothalamus allows us to understand why we shiver and sweat. Scientists discovered that the hypothalamus tries to maintain the expected body temperature of 98.6° Fahrenheit.  Therefore, through its study, neuroscience is able to help the credibility of psychology as a science.

How do the brain and body work together to explain how humans think, feel, and act? (Nina)

The brain is the boss of the body. It controls just about everything a person does, even when asleep. The brain has many different parts that work together: cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, pituitary gland, and hypothalamus. The biggest part of the brain is the cerebrum. The cerebrum is the thinking part of the brain, and it controls voluntary muscles. Also, thinking hard uses the cerebrum. The cerebrum has two halves; some scientists think that the right half thinks about abstract things like music, colors, and shapes. The left half is thinks about math, logic, and speech. Also, the right half of the cerebrum controls the left side of your body, and the left half controls the right side. Additionally, the cerebellum is at the back of the brain, below the cerebrum. It controls balance, movement, and coordination. The cerebellum allows a person to stand upright, keep balance, and move around. -Another important part of the brain is the brain stem. The brain stem is in charge of all the functions the body needs to stay alive, such as breathing, digesting food, and circulating blood. Part of the brain stem's job is to control involuntary muscles. There are involuntary muscles in the heart and stomach, and it's the brain stem that tells the heart to pump more blood when needed. Furthermore, the pituitary gland produces and releases hormones into the body. The pituitary gland releases hormones, plays a role in puberty, and keeps metabolism going. Finally, the hypothalamus is like the brain's inner thermostat. The hypothalamus knows what temperature the body should be (about 98.6° Fahrenheit). If the body is too hot, the hypothalamus tells it to sweat. If the body is too cold, the hypothalamus tells the body to shiver. These five main parts of the brain show how the brain and the body work together to create how a human thinks, feels, and acts.

What is the difference between cognitive and psychology and neuroscience? (Molly)                                                 
              Neuroscience deals with more in depth studies of biology. This science analyzes how the brain and body work together. For example, when an individual gets hurt, these scientists evaluate how the brain knows something is wrong and feels pain. Cognitive psychology is the study of what actually goes on in the brain. For example, how the brain encodes and learns things. Cognitive psychology has nothing to do with the body and how it interacts with the brain. It is strictly the study of the brain and its functions.

How do gender roles play a role in how we study human beings and how they think? (Molly)                  

              Gender roles are our expectations about the way men and women behave. They play a role in how we study humans by developing theories. For example, the gender schema theory is when an individual combines the environmental influence with his/her own cognitive thinking of what is right and wrong, whereas the social learning theory only considers the impact of the environments’ gender norms. With both of these theories, we can develop an idea of how boys and girls mature into their gender functions.                                                                             

How does culture play a role in how people behave? (Molly)

              Culture can be defined as the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors a population shares. Cultures expect people to have certain responsibilities and perform specific actions. For example, women in some cultures are expected to stay home and watch the children or do household work, while other cultures view women as equal to men, which means they share freedom and independence. Cultures set what they believe the norm should be. These norms are passed down from generation to generation. The norms include everything that is acceptable behavior in a certain group of people. For example, a culture influences what appropriate gestures, personal space, and compliments are in a population. Certain foods and jobs also differ between cultures. Altogether, culture is basically the environment of a population. People imitate how their own culture functions

How do studies of twins help us to understand the genetics behind psychology? (Molly)     

              Twins can help us understand genetics behind psychology because most of the time they are raised in the same environment. In this case, since the twins are exposed to similar situations, punishments, and social environments, the difference in how they react (or how their genetics influence their actions) can be taken note of. In studies where the twins are not raised in the same household and environment, we can determine the similarities that identical twins have in common. It was discovered that identical twins, even separated at birth, normally grow up to become very similar people. Genetics influence an individual’s personality, likes, dislikes, and reactions. Since their genetics are identical, it can be concluded that both nature and nurture plays a role in an individual’s development. Biological and social factors each are responsible for determining the outcome of a person.

Explain how evolution plays a role in Psychology: (Laura)                                                       
              Evolutionary psychology is how the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one’s genes. It explains psychological traits, such as memory, perception, or language, as adaptations, or the functional products of natural selection. For example, humans have inherited special mental capacities for acquiring language.

How does technology play a role in helping us to understand the brain and its functions better? (Laura)            

              For hundreds of years, the brain was way too small to study with the naked eye; scientists were able to feel bumps on the skull and examine lifeless brains. There were no high-powered, gentle tools to observe the living brain. Now, scientists can selectively lesion tiny clusters of normal or defective brains cells, while leaving surrounding areas unharmed. Scientists can investigate the brain with tiny electrical pulses, watch the messages of individual neurons and billions of neuron, and see color representations of the brain’s energy-consuming activity. Along with a lesion, other tools scientists use to study the brain include an electroencephalogram (records the waves of electrical activity across the brain’s surface), a computed tomography scan (a series of x-rays taken from several angles that combines to make a composite representation of a slice through the body), a positron emission tomography scan (a visual display of brain activity that shows where a radioactive for of glucose goes while the brain performs tasks) , and magnetic resonance imaging (uses magnetic fields and radio waves and shows structures within the brain).

Do you believe that natural selection is a plausible theory when it comes to how humans have developed over time? (Laura)

              Charles Darwin set sail on a journey around the world. After this journey, he wondered why tortoises on one land differed from those on another land. He explained the diversity by proposing the idea of natural selection. This means that Darwin believed nature selects those that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment. Natural selection is a plausible theory to how humans have developed over time because it explains why humans act and think differently in different places of the world.

Consider the term “Social Darwinism” used often during the imperial age of American history. Do you believe that the term has credibility when it comes to Psychology? (Laura)

              “Social Darwinism” is the theory of the survival of the fittest. It says that there are natural forces acting on societies in which the best-adapted and most successful groups survive. This term has credibility when it comes to Psychology because Psychology is the study of the human mind and behaviors. How humans survive through this “Social Darwinism” theory is through their behaviors and actions. For example, those individuals who are better able to find and use a food resource will, on average, live longer and produce more offspring than those who are less successful at finding food.

Culture plays a huge role in how human beings behave but it also plays a role in how we perceive others. How does the culture we were brought up in influence the way that we perceive others around the world? (Chrissy)

              Culture is shared ideas and behaviors that one generation passes on to the next. It influences many things such as our standards on promptness and frankness, our attitudes toward premarital sex and varying body shapes, our tendencies to be casual or formal, etc. For example, in the Spanish culture their attitude toward promptness is very different from other places. It is appropriate for them to arrive late to any social gathering, but they are expected to be on time for work, school, or sporting events. This would frustrate a Japanese person because their culture is very prompt. Awareness of these differences in cultures can help relieve conflict. Our biological heritage keeps us united as a universal human family. Each culture has different norms (the rules for accepted and expected behavior) like Muslims only use their right hand’s fingers to eat or British will orderly wait in a line. Another norm deals with greetings in different culture. It is often that cultures will clash due to the different norms. For example, personal space can make some feel uncomfortable depending on the culture. In addition, people with roots to northern European culture will perceive Mediterranean people as warm and charming, but very inefficient; people who have Mediterranean culture will perceive northern Europeans as efficient, but cold and preoccupied with punctuality. Different culture norms can cause people to become frustrated because of the differences. Perceptions can be blurred by these differences which is why awareness can help relieve frustrations.

Based on what you know about psychology and biology, do you believe that men and women can be perfectly equal in our society? Explain your response. (Chrissy)

              Gender issues are common in psychology. They are obvious in what we dream and in how we express and detect emotions. Also, we show differences in our risk for alcoholism, depression, and eating disorders. For example, women carry conversations to build relationships and men talk to give information or take advice. Awareness of the differences can help avoid conflicts. Although there are many differences, women and men are also very similar. Men and women experience the same sensations of light and sound, we feel hunger and desire and we show similar intelligence and well-being. Our culture further effects gender. In addition, women seem to have a more intense and more frequent experience of joy and love. They also experienced more embarrassment, guilt, shame, sadness, anger, fear, and distress. Men seemed to experience pride more frequently and intensely than women. Although men and women do share many similarities, they will never be perfectly equal in our society. Women can hold male positions, but if women act aggressive or tough like a man, they are often perceived as rude just because they are women and are supposed to be more sensitive. The gap between men and women has gotten significantly smaller, but there are just certain customs that will keep the two from being perfectly equal. For example, in an agricultural society, women remain close to home working in the fields and teaching the children while the men do all the fencing and building. Due to the gender roles that have developed over time, men and women will never be completely equal tending to limit women’s rights and power. Over the generations, the gap between the men and women will continue to close, but perfection will not be completely reached.

Consider Wilson High School’s social environment. How often does peer pressure play a role in the decisions that students make here? Provide an example to prove your point. (Chrissy)

              Peer pressure affects Wilson High School every day in the class rooms, hall ways, and extracurricular activities. Students will often conform or agree with what the majority says or does. In addition, the seniority card is often pulled against the under classman. For example, if there is only a few spots left on the library pass and it is between a senior and a sophomore, the senior will pressure the sophomore to giving up their spot. Another example is the other week a senior student wanted to skip study hall ninth period, but did not want to do it alone. She then asked a sophomore who had a major subject ninth period to skip with her. She persistently asked until the sophomore agreed. This is just one example of peer pressure regarding seniority. Even when voting for something in the class room, a student will often not speak out in fear of being ridiculed by the others or if a student does speak out they will often conform to the rest of the group instead of keeping their initial stance. Peer pressure often makes the minority feel awkward and out of place causing them to give in to the majority. Many times students will just try to fit in because they want their ‘friends’ to like them and not be disappointed in them.

The current foreign language program at Wilson starts in 6^th grade. Considering what you know about brain development, is that a good age to start studying a foreign language or is it not necessarily the best age to start? Explain using at least two examples. (Chrissy)

              No, it is definitely not the best time to begin a foreign language program when a child is in 6th grade. When infants are first born, they can discriminate between phonemes of all languages. One example of this is displayed in Japanese and American babies and how they are able to distinguish between the phonemes /r/ and /l/. The Japanese language cannot tell the difference between these two phonemes once their language matures, but infants who are under one year of age can do this. The ability to do this lessens by the age of one year (Sternberg, 1999). This supports the notion that humans are born with some sort of device that facilitates the ability to learn any language as infants.

              As they age that critical period ends and babies become able to discriminate only between phonemes in the language that they hear spoken by caretakers/parents. Children’s brains are most able to fully acquire a second language before the onset of puberty. This is called the optimal age hypothesis (DeGroot & Berry, 1992). Sixth grade is not early enough to start learning language. For example, when I went to Argentina last spring, all the girls on the field hockey teams we played could speak English very well because they had been taking the language for so many years. I felt very out of place because my vocabulary and ability to communicate to them in Spanish was very minimal. I wish that I would have had to opportunity to begin speaking Spanish at an earlier age in order to increase my ability to understand and speak the language more fluently.