Phase Two Part V

Cognition- all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. For example, learning a new language, like Spanish. I need to think about what I am saying by the stuff I already know and remember how to say it properly, and then communicate it. (Molly)

Concept- a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. For example, plants are organized into grouping depending on their color and/or type. (Molly)

Prototype- a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). For example, other types of birds such as hawks. (Molly)

Algorithm- a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier but also more error-prone-use of heuristics. For example, Kraft mac&cheese directions or directions on how to assemble a new patio set. (Molly)

Heuristic- a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. For example, telling someone to look at the email to discover what the directions are from the coach. (doesn’t give the exact directions but tells you how to discover them). (Molly)

Insight- a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. For example, finding the answer to a really hard math equation. (Molly)

Confirmation bias- a tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions. For example, researching the same item that you just bought to confirm that you actually did buy it at the lowest price. (Molly)

Fixation- the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving. For example, having a set way to bake a certain food and not changing it even though people give suggestions. (Molly)

Mental Set- a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helping in solving a new problem. For example, being persistent in the way you study for a test. This strategy may not work for other classes. (Molly)

Functional fixedness- the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.  For example, my mom asked me to bring in fire wood.  I knew we had a fire wood holder thing that I could use but I could not find it.  I searched everywhere for twenty minutes until I finally found it when in reality I could have just used a blanket or a cloth to put the wood in since they both essentially do the same thing, but I had my mind set. (Chrissy)

Representativeness heuristic- judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information.  For example, if I meet someone with a laid back attitude and long hair, I might assume they are Californian, whereas someone who is very polite but rigid may be assumed to be English. (Chrissy)

Availability heuristic- estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events common.  For example, a person argues that cigarette smoking is not unhealthy because his grandfather smoked three packs of cigarettes a day and lived to be 100. The grandfather's health could simply be an unusual case that does not speak to the health of smokers in general. (Chrissy)

Overconfidence- tendency to be more confident that correct, overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments.  If one goes into a test overconfident and doesn’t really prepare because they think they know everything, their results will not be favorable for them usually. (Chrissy)

Framing- the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.  For example, if statistics are posed in a more positive manner, people will respond better.  If a person is going into surgery the doctor will tell them that 99% of people recover perfectly instead of 1% do not recover. (Chrissy)

Belief bias- tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seen invalid.  For example, someone my say that some good ice skaters are not professional hockey players, but will reject an assertion that some professional hockey players are not good ice skaters which is possible although seems unlikely. (Chrissy)

Belief perseverance- clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.  This often causes conflicts.  For example, my sister is queen of this.  She doesn’t like to admit she is wrong so she will continue to insist that her belief is right no matter if she is or isn’t.  This leads to a good argument between us because I tend to do the same thing. (Chrissy)

Artificial intelligence- the science of designing and programming computer systems to do intelligent things and to simulate human though processes like reasoning, learning, and understanding language.  Industrial robots that can sense their environment. (Chrissy)

Computer neural networks- computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells, performing tasks like learning to recognize visual patterns and smells (Chrissy)

Language-our spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning. Example: every culture, continent, group of people, and even organisms have their own languages. They communicate information from one to another in a form of language. Each language is not the same, but it is used for the same purpose of communication. (Nina)

Phoneme-in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. Example: the k sound in the words kit and skill. Even though most native speakers don't notice this, in most dialects, the k sounds in each of these words are actually pronounced differently: they are different speech sounds. (Nina)

Morpheme-in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) Example: In Spanish, the prefix of a verb is kept when changing tenses. When translating “comer”, which means to eat, into different verb tenses, the “com” stays the same to keep the meaning of the word as the endings change: como, comes, come, comemos, coméis, comen, etc. (Nina)

Grammar-in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Example: Knowing the grammar of a language allows people to communicate and understand each other. If a sentence in Spanish reads: Corrió rápidamente a la tienda, a person who understand the grammar of the language would know it says: He ran fast to the store. (Nina)

Semantics-the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning. For example: a semantic rule tells us that adding –s to make means that it is happening in present tense. (Nina)

Syntax-the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. Example: In English, if the sentence read: I will go to the store at seven, in Spanish it would translate to: Voy a ir a la tienda a las siete. In English, the noun (person) needs to be stated to determine who is doing the action. In Spanish, the noun (or person) doing the action does not need to be stated because the ending of the verb indicates that person. (Nina)

Babbling stage-beginning at 3 to 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. For example, a few months after my cousin was born, he constantly uttered “goo goo gah gah”.  (Laura)

One-word stage-the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. After my cousin passed the babbling stage, he could only speak simple words such as “mamma”. (Laura)

Two-word stage-beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements. Because my cousins have a cat, at this stage my younger cousin always said “black cat”. (Laura)

Telegraphic speech-early speech stage in which the child speaks like a telegram- “go car” –using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words. When hungry, my cousin always asked for food saying he “want food”. (Laura)

Linguistic determinism-Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think. For example, a person that speaks two dissimilar languages, such as English and Chinese, could take the same personality test in each language and score differently. (Laura)

1.        Why does everything covered in chapters 8, 9, and 10 fall under the field of cognitive psychology? Provide three different examples of how it does (one from each chapter). (Molly)           
           Everything covered in chapter 8, 9, and 10 are all under the field of cognitive psychology because this field studies all mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember and learn. Since most of the body’s functions are dependent on the brain to control every part of them, cognitive psychology is a major part to understanding this concept. For example, in chapter 8, we learned about conditioning. This requires someone to behave a certain way and receive a certain response. This is related to cognitive psychology because this process includes remember what the response was to a certain behavior. We think about what happened last time we did something similar to what we were about to do. In chapter 9, there was a lot of information about memory and encoding information. This knowledge is relevant to cognitive psychology because this field deals with thinking, remembering, and learning the facts. Short-term and long-term memory is related to the field of cognitive psychology because it explains how the brain processes information, what it takes to have information retained, and why the brain loses information quickly after it is read. Chapter 10 deals with prototypes, insights, and problem solving. This is under the field of cognitive psychology because it involves the brain and how it perceives, categorizes and organizes information.  

2.       Create a category hierarchy to organize a concept of your choosing (DO NOT use the one in the book). Make sure you label a prototype as well. (the best thing to do is to create one for neuroscience).(Nina)

3.       Explain the relationship between functional fixedness and problem solving. Provide an example that illustrates the relationship (this should be no more than 2 sentences). (Nina)Functional fixedness (the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions) is an impediment to problem solving. A common example involves a group of people who want to enter a locked room when they have no key, and they think that using the key is the only way to open the door. A solution often arises when somebody thinks to insert a credit card between the door and the door jamb, releasing the lock.

4.      How can you use what you know about thinking and language to improve your learning strategy?  Provide two examples. (Chrissy)

One way we can improve our learning strategy is to organize our information in a way that is pleasing to the brain.  Meaning that it flows, looks nice, and makes sense.  Chunking our information will help because grouping the items can make it easier to learn.  In addition, we could put the information to a jingle.  For example, I still remember the Canada Provinces because they were put to the tune ‘William Tell Overture’ and I learned it in sixth grade.  I think if we display our information into an easy and organized fashion, it will help.  Also, if we find easy way to remember things like by using a mnemonic device. 

5.       How can you use your knowledge of language acquisition and the way that we read, speak, and think to help create your learning strategy? (Laura)       Our words influence the way we think. People use language when classifying and remembering. Language’s power to influence thought makes vocabulary building a crucial part of education. To expand language is to expand the ability to think. In young children, thinking develops and in hand with language. That is why teaching new words teaches new ideas and new ways of thinking. Language transforms experience, fuels imagination, and links people to one another. This means that to create a learning strategy, it is crucial to provide new vocabulary in order to expand thinking and initiate a new way to think.

6.       Summarize how you will use thinking an d language in your learning strategy below. Make sure to include at least 6 different ways you are going to utilize knowledge. (Laura)As previously stated, language plays a huge in the way we think. It influences what type of thinking and how experienced our thinking is. Therefore, language will play a role in our learning strategy. New terms will be learned so that new thinking will take place and expanded. Ways in which we could include language in our learning strategy is a discussion between classmates, lectures, taking notes, hands-on activities such as games, reading, and projects. All of these learning strategies provide different opportunities for language to be a reoccurring theme in the class. A discussion and activities allow for students to actually use the language and terms. Lectures call for the students to repeatedly listen to the language; projects and notes let students constantly see and use the language. Finally, reading calls for students to continually see and comprehend new language and terms.