Phase Two Part IV

Memory- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. (Molly)

Memory loss- can be as mobile as before and remember things by looking at old photos and remember who people are. However people like this do not know the day of the week or remember short-term things. (Molly)

Memory feats- people who can remember large amounts of information. (Molly)

Memory like a computer?- Some ways our memory is like a computer’s information-processing system. To remember any event requires that we get information into our brain (encoding), retain that information (storage), and later get it back out (retrieval). First a computer translates input into an electronic language, just like the brain encodes information into a neural language. (Molly)

How neuroscience fits into memory- neuroscience fits into memory because neuroscience studies the brain. It studies how information is transferred around and stored. Memory relies on the function of the parts of the brain.  (Molly)

Sensory memory(page 354) include all types- the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. An iconic memory is a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. An echoic memory is a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still e recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. (Molly)

Long-term memories (page 355) include all storage- The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Our brains are not like attics, which once filled can store more items only if we discard old ones. Our capacity for storing information permanently in long-term memory is essentially unlimited. (Molly)

Short-term memory (page 355): our short-term memory span for information just presented is limited. A seconds-long retention of up to about seven items, depending on the information and how it is presented. Unless you rehearse the information to encode it for long-term storage, it is hard to recall it. Short-term memory is not only limited in duration, but also in capacity. (Molly)

The role of emotion in memory: emotion has a powerful impact on the things we can remember. We learn from past experience and reinforcement. (Molly)

The steps of encoding: some encoding is automatic processing (little of no effort that encodes an enormous amount of information about space, time and frequency), while others are effortful processing (requires repetition and attention). Mnemonic devices depend on the memorability of visual images and of information that is organized into chunks. Organizes information into chunks and hierarchies also aids memory. We first record-to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory, from which it is processed into a short-term memory bin, where we encode it for long-term memory and later retrieval. (Molly)

Ebbinghaus’ retention curve-Ebbignhaus found that he more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2, said simply, the more time we spend learning novel information, the more we retain it. (Nina)

Spacing effect-the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (Nina)

What we encode-When processing verbal information for storage, we usually encode its meaning. We tend not to remember things exactly as they were. Rather, we remember what we encoded. (Nina)

Kinds of encoding-                Visual encoding-the encoding of picture images
                Acoustic encoding-the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
                Semantic encoding-the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words (Nina)

Levels of processing-Processing a word deeply-by its meaning (Semantic encoding)-produces better recognition of it at a later time than does shallow processing by attending to its appearance or sound. (Nina)

Imagery and memory-Imagery is mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. People remember words that lend themselves to pictures images better than we remember abstract, low-imagery words. Two encodes are better than one. (Nina)

Mnemonics-memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. (Nina)

Ways to organize information for encoding- Organizing information for encoding involves grouping them in chunks or hierarchies.  Chunking occurs naturally and automatically; it is organizing items into familiar, manageable units. A hierarchy is an arrangement of items to aid memory. (Nina)

Memory trace- Engrams are a hypothetical means by which memory traces are stored as biophysical or biochemical change in the brain (and other neural tissue) in response to external stimuli. Our sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory retain information for varying time periods.  Our physical memory trace gradually decays; memories do not reside in single, specific spots. (Nina)

Iconic memory-a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. (Nina)

Echoic memory- the use of auditory sensory images; if one’s attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds while it still lingers in one’s mind’s echo chamber.  For example, sometimes when my mom is talking to me, I will be texting or looking on Facebook and she will always say, “Are you listening to me?” and I will have to quickly think of the things I selectively heard and repeat them so she will believe that I was paying attention to her.  (Chrissy)

Long-term potentiation (LTP)- an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory association.  For example, a mouse is placed in a pool of murky water; it will swim around to find the hidden plat form to climb out.  With repetition the mouse will learn to do this faster with fewer mistakes.  It does this with the help of visual cues around since it cannot smell or see the platform. (Chrissy)

Amnesia- the loss of memory.  For example, a girl got in a car accident and hit her head.  Now she cannot retain any new information and still thinks it is the same day that it was when she got in to the accident a few years back (Chrissy)

Implicit memory vs. explicit memory- implicit memory deals with the fact that a person with amnesia can learn how to do something (procedural memory) where as a explicit memory means that they may not know and declare that they know (declarative memory).  It is memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. (Chrissy)

Hippocampus- (noticed in autopsies of amnesia patients) a limbic system structure that keeps track of explicit memories of new names, images, and events  (Chrissy)

Recall- the ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness.  For example, on tests like the PSSA’s I will recall information that I learned years ago that I didn’t even know that I remembered. (Chrissy)

Serial positioning effect- our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list, then try to remember the ones in the middle (Chrissy)

Recognition- a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.  For example, after meeting so many people through field hockey I often recognize people at every field hockey event I go to but it takes me a little bit until I can identify them and make the connection (Chrissy)

Relearning- a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.  If you learn something and forget it, when you go to relearn it, you will learn it quicker the second time.  For example, at the beginning of every year in my math class that I’m taking, we will relearn the material that we learned the previous year just to make sure we remember and understand it.  It takes remarkably less time. (Chrissy)

Priming- the activation of particular associations in memory, often unconsciously.  “wakening associations”. (Chrissy)

Mere-exposure- the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. (Laura)

Déjà vu- that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. (Laura)

Mood congruent memory- the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood. (Laura)

Proactive vs. retroactive interference- Proactive interference is the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information and retroactive interference is the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. (Laura)

Repression- in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. (Laura)

Misinformation effect- incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event (Laura)

Source amnesia- attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (Laura)

Binocular Cues- depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence that depend on the use of two eyes (Laura)

Monocular Cues- distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone (Laura)

1.       Consider everything you know about the way memory works in the human brain. How can you tap into that in order to construct your learning strategy? Provide at least 5 different ways to use memory to create an effective learning strategy? (Molly)
To effectively retain information into your memory, there are several different learning strategies. For example, visual encoding (or being able to see information and retain it in your memory) can be utilized by posters, PowerPoints, pictures, demonstrations and videos. Acoustic encoding (meaning being able to retain information through audio) can be useful in learning by doing lectures or even listening to songs about the information. Semantic encoding of information can be helpful for learning because it involves the meaning of words. For example, reading a book or reading over notes would be examples of semantic encoding.

2.        How is the human mind faulty in remembering information? Explain how that could impact the construction of your learning strategy (provide 3 examples). (Nina)Short-term memory is limited not only in duration but also in capacity. Our short-term memory typically stores just seven or so bits of information.  Also, short-term memory can be limited because of short-term memory decay. Unless rehearsed, verbal information may be quickly forgotten. People who like to cram and study the period before a test will have problems retaining the information because of short-term memory. Additionally, despite the brain’s vast storage capacity, we do not store most information with the exactness of a tape recorder. Rather, forgetting occurs as new experiences interfere with our retrieval and as the physical memory trace gradually decays. This could impact learning because as more information is being learned, other information is being forgotten. Also, iconic memory (a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli) only allows us to recall a scene in amazing detail for a few tenths of a second. If a photograph was used to when being taught certain information, the detail of the scene is remembered for no more than a few tenths of a second. This method is very difficult when trying to retain information by using a picture-image. There are many faults in the human brain when remembering information.

3.       What kinds of strategies can you use to study in order to help you remember information better for the AP exam? (Chrissy)

There are many strategies that can be used to study.  First of all, when we learn something we get information into our brain which is called encoding.  Then we retain the information called storage and then we later recall this information called retrieval.  In order to learn the information we can use hands on activities like games as well as critical thinking to go beyond the text book and what is written.  We can also explore the subject into a deeper matter and trying to find real life examples to make it personal.  Associating certain subjects with different things will make it easy to remember for example chunking, making a song or a little rhyme can help remember information.  In addition, lectures and note taking is also very helpful.  Finally, the repetition of important facts will help put the information into long term memory instead of just memorizing something for a test the next day.  These methods are examples that fall under visual encoding, acoustic encoding, and semantic encoding.

4.       Consider Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs (not in 9), how can this concept about the needs of human beings impact memory and learning? Provide 3 examples to prove your point. (Laura)Maslow developed a theory of personality that accurately describes many realities of personal experiences. Maslow’s theory of needs include self-actualization, esteem, love/belonging, safety, and physiological. If these "deficiency needs" are not met, the body gives no physical indication but the individual feels anxious and tense. This impacts humans with memory and learning because people must meet these five basic needs before truly learning. It is a useful guide for generally understanding why students behave the way that they do and in determining how learning. Maslow theorized that these needs must be met before a child can learn. A child who is hungry cannot learn. A child who is stressed cannot learn. A child who is in an environment absent of unconditional love cannot learn. The brain of a child who feels emotionally or physically threatened produces chemicals that actually inhibit learning.

5.       Research Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. How do they tie into what you learned about human memory and also, how can they help you create an effective learning strategy? Provide 3 pieces of factual supportyou’re your reasoning. (Laura)Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives is a multi-tiered model of classifying thinking according to six cognitive levels of complexity. These levels include remembering (retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory), understanding (constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining), applying (carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing), analyzing (breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing), evaluating (making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing), and creating (putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing). The steps listed are ways in which the human memory works to remember specific things. The theory of multiple intelligence as traditionally defined in IQ tests does not sufficiently describe the wide variety of cognitive abilities humans display. These two theories will help to create an effective learning strategy because they explain how the mind processes and remembers material, and that there are different ways for people to learn certain items.